Integrating perspectives in career development theory and practice. (Articles).

The author explores the possibility of theory integration in career development and counseling, focusing primarily on bridging the gap between objectivist/positivistic and constructivist approaches. The potentiality of combining concepts from varied theories into a preliminary framework is discussed. This framework proposes 3 possibilities: career as self-realization, growing experiences, and context conceptualization. Because its focus is career development practice, this framework triggers some heuristic thoughts that might be seen by career counselors as applicable to their counseling interventions.

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Convergence of theoretical perspectives has been a recurring topic in the career literature for quite some time (Savickas, 1995b; Sharf, 1997; Zunker, 2002). Since Osipow's (1990) call for theory convergence, there has been growing interest in focusing on this issue. In Savickas and Lent's (1994) work, which focused on convergence in theories of career development, scholars and practitioners presented their diverse views on issues of theory convergence in research and practice. To highlight the direction for theoretical integration, Sharf (1997) proposed using several combinations of theories in career counseling practice (e.g., to use Super's, 1990, and Gottfredson's, 1996, theories together and to combine Super's theory with trait and factor and career decision-making theories). Young and Chen (1999) noted in a recent annual review of career development theory and practice that the topic of theory convergence continues to be an area of interest. For example, in systems theory of career development, Patton a nd McMahon (1999) attempted to incorporate some key constructs from major career theories (e.g., Holland's, 1997, personality typology theory; Brown's, 1996, values-based model; Super's, 1990, life-span and life-space approach; Krumboltz's [Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996] social learning theory; and Young, Valach, & Collin's, 1996, contextual approach) into a more complex and dynamic conceptual framework, echoing the trend of theory convergence. The most recent attempt in this regard is from Savickas (2001), who proposed a four-level model for comprehending career theories and integrating them into a comprehensive theory of careers. He suggested that many existing constructs of career theories be integrated into the four levels of the model, namely, the self-organization of personality dispositions, self-regulatory concerns, self-definitional narratives, and selective optimization processes.

Prompted by the ongoing discussion of theory convergence, especially by Savickas's (2001) latest proposal for a comprehensive theoretical model, this analytical discussion extends the continuing effort of exploring the possibility of integrating theoretical perspectives, broadly defined, in career development and counseling. My primary focus is on the integration of objectivist/positivistic views and constructivist perspectives. The intent was to develop a framework to stimulate some thoughts and suggestions that might be seen by career counselors as applicable to their counseling practice.

In this article, I (a) present a brief rationale for theoretical integration and (b) propose three possibilities for theoretical integration, namely, career as self-realization, career as a reflection of growing experiences, and career as context conceptualization. I hope that in using insights that the three proposed possibilities of theoretical integration yield, other more openly conceptualized and loosely structured approaches may be formed. Career counselors may find that these approaches are useful in the helping process. Laypersons may also realize that such conceptualizations tend to be heuristic and helpful for understanding their own experiences of life career development.

Rationale for Theoretical Integration

There have been several ways of categorizing career development and counseling theories. Brown and Brooks (1996) used the labels "established theories" and "emerging theories" to identify the two general groups of theories in the field. Zunker (2002) and Niles and Harris-Bowlsbey (2002) largely echoed this perception in categorizing theoretical approaches. In delineating vocational psychology's responses to cultural changes in career, Savickas (2000) used the terms constructivist and objectivist to name the two major schools of thinking. Anyone who is familiar with the history and recent development of theories in vocational and career psychology may be well aware of the reality that there is a line of division between the two major theoretical camps.

These two camps are formed by (a) theories that are rooted primarily in positivistic or objectivist beliefs and (b) theories that are derived from social constructivist ideology. Within each camp, there is considerable variance from one theoretical perspective to another, making it difficult to generalize a set of clear-cut characteristics that define all of the theoretical models within the group.

The majority of the established career theories either have their foundation in or are strongly influenced by the positivistic worldview. As is true of the modern scientific movement, vocational psychology has traditionally adopted the positivistic or objectivist ideology to explain people's work-life behavior and career choice. According to this ideology, vocational behavior is generally identified by a scientific and logical match between a person's traits and the demands of the work environment. This match can be reasonably predicted and achieved by scientific tools such as assessment instruments. Objective observation, measurement, and reasoning are regarded as key variables in career choice and planning. The positivistic school of thinking tends to focus primarily on a linear and rational methodology in defining knowledge (Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000; Savickas, 1995b, 2000; Zunker, 2002). Established career theories, such as Holland's (1997) personality type theory and Dawis and Lofquist's (1984) theory of work adjustment, are key representatives of the positivistic school of thinking. Other established theories, such as Super's (1990) life-span, life-space theory; Gottfredson's (1996) theory of circumscription and compromise; and Krumboltz's (Mitchell & Krumboltz, 1996) social learning theory, bear considerable influences from this worldview.

The social constructivist perspective, on the other hand, explains vocational psychology in a different way. It views career as a socially constructed process that reflects both individual actions and the person's interactions with others. Meanings represent the essence of the construction of this social reality, whereas language functions as the primary way of communicating meanings and understandings. Rather than objectively measuring and assessing a person's traits, career development is viewed as a complex, dynamic, and ever-evolving process. The person's subjective intention and perspective are the essential vehicles in this process. Central to the process is the contextual meaning-making experience that reflects the person's subjective interpretation of situations and events, as well as the particular contexts within which these situations and events occur. Thus, constructs such as narrative, action, joint action, context, and interpretation become the principal aspects in framing people's understanding of themselves and the world in which they exist (Collin & Young, 1986, 1992; Peavy, 1993, 1996, 1997; Peterson & Gonzalez, 2000; Polkinghorne, 1990, 1992; Savickas, 1993, 1995a, 1997, 2000; Young & Valach, 2000; Young et al., 1996). The constructivist school of thinking is the foundation of emerging theoretical models in career development and counseling. These models include Young et al.'s (1996) contextual explanation of career, Cochran's (1990, 1997) narrative approach, and Savickas's (1993, 1995a, 1997) constructivist approach. Other emerging models, such as Brown's (1996) value-based, holistic model; Lent, Brown, and Hackett's (1996) social cognitive framework; Betz's (2001) self-efficacy model; and Patton and McMahon's (1999) systems theory approach are connected with and reflect features of social constructivist philosophy.

Differences between theories (i.e., either the philosophical differences between the two major schools of thought or the intragroup discrepancy in each camp) hold merit because these differences enrich our understanding of career psychology. Such variances provide an opportunity for debate, for presenting different perspectives, and for offering new insights. Although the continuing existence and development of a variety of theoretical schools in the field is important, there is also the opportunity to become more open-minded about the possibility of integrating concepts from very different theoretical models in career development theory and practice. This dialogue can occur between proponents of the objectivist approach and the constructivist approach. It can also happen in discussions of the theoretical models within each of these two major schools of study. Thus, career development scholars and practitioners are called on to become more flexible and creative so that they can find ways to bridge the traditi onal philosophical divisions between the theoretical territories in the field. Not only can this open dialogue generate new ideas for theory development, it can also help practitioners see how a broad range of theoretical concepts can be incorporated into their career interventions. Just as existing theories are enriched by diversity, pertinent integration of theoretical perspectives can provide insights that expand career counselors' perception and understanding of individuals' work lives in the new century (see, for example, Savickas, 2000, and Gollin & Young, 2000). This integration can ultimately widen the scope of theoretical options, extend professionals' vision toward potentiality for comprehensiveness, and, moreover, it can lead to the development of new dimensions for research and facilitate creativity and refinement in practice. Thus, keeping an open mind in considering ways of integrating theoretical perspectives is timely and pertinent for the enhancement of career development theory and practice. There should be a continuing effort to reach this goal.

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