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Jean Guichard, Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers (National Conservatory of Applied Technology), Paris, France. This article was originally given as a lecture at the International Association for Educational and Vocational Guidance conference (50th anniversary) in Paris, September 2001. Correspondence concerning this article should he addressed to Jean Guichard, Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers, 41, rue Gay Lussac, F75005, Paris, France (e-mail:guichard@cnam.fr).