Indigenous lands management, cultural landscapes and Anishinaabe people of Shoal Lake, Northwestern Ontario, Canada.

Thompson, as recorded in Box 1, recognized that the result of the burning was the production of what he termed "meadows." These meadows occurred on the deeper soils of the eastern and northern fringes of the plains. Burning changed aspen bush into a lush meadow. As meadowland increased there was a concurrent increase in the grazing lands of the buffalo and the buffalo population. In other observations, Thompson notes how these meadowlands could be easily opened by the plow as the work of removing the trees had already been undertaken. Thompson was also one of the first to notice the difference between burns on different soil types. On stony pinelands he noted that fire tended to reproduce pinelands. However, when pines growing along rivers were burned, the plant community tended to shift toward oak, ash and alder as one moved south. In the north, fire in riparian areas tended to move the plant community toward aspen, poplar and alders. David Thompson provided the first description of how First Nations people utilized fire to open and maintain meadows. Box 1. David Thompson's Observations Regarding Fire on the Prairies We journeyed on the west side of the River; the whole distance was meadow land, and no other Woods than saplings of Oak, Ash and Alder. From the many charred stumps of Pines it was evident this side of the River was once a Pine Forest. In the more northern parts, where Pine Woods have been destroyed by fire, Aspins, Poplars and Alders have sprung up, and taken the place of the Pines; but along this, the Red River from the mildness of the climate, and goodness of the soil, Oak, Ash, Alder, and Nut Woods have succeeded the pines. This change appears to depend on soil and climate; for in the high northern latitudes, where in many places there is no soil, and the Pines spread their roots over the rocks, Pine grounds, when burned, are succeeded by Pines; for Aspins Poplars and Alders require some soil. Along the Great Plains, there are very many places where large groves of Aspins have been burnt, the charred stumps remaining; and no further production of Trees have taken place, the grass of the Plains covers them: and from this cause the Great Plains are constantly increasing in length and breadth, and the Deer give place to the Bison. But the mercy of Providence has given a productive power to the roots of the grass of the Plains and of the Meadows, on which the fire has no effect. The fire passes in flame and smoke, what was a lovely green is now a deep black; the rain descends, and this odious colour disappears, and is replaced by a still brighter green; if these grasses had not this wonderful productive power on which fire has no effect, these Great Plains would, many centuries ago, have been without Man, Bird or Beast (Tyrell 1916: 248).

Bigsby, a commissioner of the 1822-1824 joint U.S. and British boundary commission, was an astute observer of the Anishinaabe use of fire to craft the landscape. In his book he wrote "The Indians burn large tracts of pine barrens in order to favour the growth of very useful autumnal fruits" (Bigsby 1969: 207). Later he mentioned how the portage leading from Lake of the Woods to the Winnipeg river had been burnt. He also noted how some points and islands on Lake of the Woods have been burnt. Later in his journey he mentioned how a party of Anishinaabe were gathering "black bilberries" that he calls "Vaccinium Canadense." He noted that: "This fruit is incredibly abundant all over these countries. For miles we cannot tread without crushing them under our feet; and we owed much of our health and strength to the free use of them. The berries are very deep purple, as large as the out-door English grape, and they grow on a low creeping shrub. Their flavour is sweet and agreeable; most so in the spring, when they have lain a winter under snow" (Bigsby 1969: 313-314). He also recorded how the promontory near Pipestone Island was well wooded but became naked towards its middle as the Anishinaabe purposely fired it. The comments by Bigsby completed the picture of the landscape and clearly drew the linkage between fire, Anishinaabe people and the fur trade livelihood.

In the year 1857 the Palliser (Spry 1968) and the Canadian expeditions (Dawson 1968; Hind 1860; Hind, Dawson and Gladman 1858) passed through Lake of the Woods. These expeditions confirmed the basic pattern of the fire-generated landscape reported since the time of Alexander Henry "the younger" and David Thompson. In the Canadian Shield country there were many reports of burnt forests that seemed to be noted mainly in the pinelands (Spry 1968). Often the pinelands were burnt so that berries could be obtained, or the berry patches themselves were burned to maintain the berries. The banks of rivers were often burnt and these were covered by meadows. Palliser at points noted that these meadows were the sites of Anishinaabe camping grounds (Spry 1968). There were swamplands which provided decent hay especially if burnt off in the spring. These open meadows created safe places to camp as well as providing pasturage for the main ungulates which were hunted.

Moving onto the prairies the basic pattern of meadows and open groves of oaks and other hardwoods was found along the rivers. Fire also expanded the open meadows and pushed back the aspen woodlands to the east and the north. The expedition of Palliser picked up this early observation of Thompson's. It was Palliser who divided the prairies into the short grass and tall grass prairies and noted that the latter were created by the inhabitant's long practice of setting fire to the land (Spry 1968). The tall grass prairie zone extended from the southwest corner of Lake of the Woods and swept in a great are toward the northwest. As with the woodlands, the prairie was a landscape shaped by fire and was crucial to the success of the fur trading enterprise.

The fur trading landscape was a fire-generated landscape. How much of this was attributable to human agency? If the written record is taken as accurate, it suggests that there was a mixture of human agency and natural ignitions from lightening. In areas where burning was a frequent occurrence there was little fuel to create large fires. As most burning occurred in early spring and late fall it is likely that the burning along rivers and in berry patches was localized. On the prairies the fires that are reported appear to have been quite widespread. However, even in the woodlands it is likely that in dry years, large fires, such as those reported in 1803 and 1804, may have started small and expanded into large conflagrations. Regardless, it is clear there was little attempt to suppress fire. Rather, it was managed by reducing the fuel load through frequent burnings. One of the few Anishinaabe voices on the use of fire is presented in Box 2. Box 2. Observations of Madeline Theriault on Indian Use of Fire White man makes a farm to grow hay to feed his animals. He also grows vegetables for food. Indians also feed their animals, only in a different way. Around the middle of April, the Indian trapper looks around to find a bare spot, mostly up on the rocks where the snow goes first, where there is still a lot of snow at the bottom of the hill. They set a match to this bare spot and only burn where it is dry and bare, so there's no danger of a big forest fire because the fire stops when it reaches the snow. Two years later you would find a big patch of blueberries in amongst the bushes. And you would see all the hungry animals feeding on those blueberries: fox, wolves, black bear, partridge, squirrels, chipmunks, and all kinds of other birds. No doubt they were happy to find those berries. It was the trapper that got it for them by setting the fire. This is what I mean when I say Indians feed their animals too. As we would preserve them for our winter use. After a few years, young trees would grow on that burnt place. Then the rabbits would get to feed from those young bushes. In later years, the little trees would get bigger. Then the moose and deer get to feed from it. So, you see the setting of these small fires can go a long way in feeding many animals (Theriault 1992: 74-75).

The Cultural Landscape of Managerial Ecology

Seven years after the Palliser expedition ended in 1860, Canada became an independent Nation with the signing of the British North America Act. Two years later the Temporary Government of Rupert's Land Act (1869) began the transfer of land from the Hudson's Bay Company (Rupert's Land), to Canada. This led to the first of the clashes between a fur trading way of life and settlement when Louis Riel staged a rebellion against Canada. Troops were sent out via Lake of the Woods from Canada to the Northwest Territory to put down the rebellion. In 1870 the Manitoba Act was signed which created a new territory for the Dominion of Canada. In 1873 Treaty #3 was signed by the Anishinaabe people and the government of Canada at the Northwest Angle.

In the same year that the treaty was signed Simon Dawson surveyed and built what later became the Dawson trail. The Dawson trail was a mixture of corduroy roads and steamships that brought settlers through Canadian territory to the Red River and to points beyond. 1873 was also the year that Sir Sanford Fleming travelled west surveying the line for a railway (Fleming 1879; Grant 1877). Part of the stimulus for signing Treaty #3 was to establish the Dawson trail as well as to begin planning for the Canadian railway that became the Canadian Pacific Railway.