The effects of the media on body image: a meta-analysis.

The media have been criticized for depicting the thin woman as ideal. Some argue these images create unrealistic expectations for young women and cause body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. This study cumulates findings of empirical studies that examine the effects of media on body image. An estimate of overall effect size, trends in the research, and the influence of moderating variables are examined and reported. Results suggest depictions of thin women may have little to no effect on viewers. However, images of overweight women seem to have a positive effect on women's body image. Suggestions for future research are offered.

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Highly publicized cases of celebrities with eating disorders, such as Princess Diana, Karen Carpenter, and Tracey Gold, have directed public concern to the causes of eating disorders. Women in particular are most plagued by eating disorders such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, with the ratio of men to women afflicted somewhere between 1:6 and 1:10, according to the American Psychiatric Association Work Group on Eating Disorders (2000). In addition, eating disorders are becoming more prevalent in other cultures, even those in which the diseases were previously rare. Japanese and Chinese women are increasingly affected by eating disorders, and the incidence of these disorders is rising rapidly in other non-English speaking countries such as Spain, Argentina, and Fiji (American Psychiatric Association Work Group on Eating Disorders, 2000).

The increasingly evident problem of eating disorders amongst young women has led to speculation about its cause. One prominent theory is that the media's constant depiction of extremely thin women leads women to believe they should try to meet this ideal. The claim that the media can cause eating disorders has led researchers to question whether this relationship exists. However, the results of studies designed to clarify this issue have been far from conclusive. Though public concern is directed mainly toward the cause of eating disorders, researchers have measured media's influence not only on eating pathology but also on other constructs, such as body dissatisfaction and body size estimation. For the purpose of this study, these constructs will collectively be called "body image."

Some researchers claim that media have an effect on young women's body image (e.g., Baker, Sivyer, & Towell, 1998; Botta, 1999; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Hofschire & Greenberg, 2002). Specifically, these researchers report that results from their studies indicate a relationship between media consumption and eating disorders, body dissatisfaction, or a number of other related outcomes. However, other researchers have come to contradictory conclusions. In fact, results of studies by Crouch and Degelman (1998) and Myers and Biocca (1992) have indicated that rather than causing an increase in body dissatisfaction, media promote positive body attitudes in young women. Other researchers claim that no relationship exists between media and body image (e.g., Borzekowski, Robinson, & Killen, 2000; Cusumano & Thompson, 1997; Jane, Hunter, & Lozzi, 1999; Stice, 1998).

At this point, a meta-analysis is a useful step toward sorting out these conflicting results. Meta-analytic reviews are more systematic, explicit, and exhaustive than qualitative reviews (Rosenthal, 1991). The number of variables included in this meta-analysis will allow for the examination of trends among studies including the use of different media types, media exposure lengths, outcome measures, comparison stimuli, and participant ages. Meta-analysis at this stage of research on the relationship between media and body image can offer a greater understanding of the consequences of the prevalence of thin images in the media, as well as provide direction for future studies.

Literature Review

Theory

Researchers have used various theoretical underpinnings for studying the relationship between media and body image. Here, I review the theories that have been used by researchers in the area. The most common of these theories is Festinger's social comparison theory (Botta, 1999, 2000; Dunkley, Wertheim, & Paxton, 2001; Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996; Heinberg & Thompson, 1995; Irving, 1990; Kalodner, 1997; Martin & Gentry, 1997; Martin & Kennedy, 1993; Myers & Biocca, 1992; Ogden & Mundray, 1996; Posavac, Posavac, & Posavac, 1998; Richins, 1991; Shaw, 1995; Turner, Hamilton, Jacobs, Angood, & Dwyer, 1997; Wegener, Hartmann, & Geist, 2000; Wilcox & Laird, 2000). Festinger (1954) argues that people evaluate themselves through comparison with others and are more likely to compare themselves to those who are similar to them and who are attractive. This comparison is supposed to motivate one to improve if she finds herself lacking. However, researchers who use social comparison theory as a backdrop for media and body image studies suggest such comparisons could have potential negative effects. The average model portrayed in the media is approximately 5'11" and 120 pounds. By contrast, the average American woman is 5'4" and 140 pounds (Wolf, 1991). Research has shown that a discrepancy between the "actual" self (attributes you and others believe you possess) and the "ideal" self (attributes you or others believe you should possess) can produce negative emotional states such as sadness, discouragement, and depression (Hatter, 1998). An average woman may be discouraged by the discrepancy between her body and that of the media ideal. Therefore, if social comparison is the mechanism at play, researchers would expect that a discrepancy between a woman's ideal body shape and her actual body shape leads to negative feelings, including body dissatisfaction.

Other researchers have both implicitly and explicitly explained a connection between media exposure and body image using Gerbner's cultivation theory as a framework (Borzekowski et al., 2000; Botta, 1999; Cusumano & Thompson, 1997; Henderson-King & Henderson-King, 1997; Henderson-King, Henderson-King, & Hoffman, 2001; Jane et al., 1999; Tiggeman & Pickering, 1996; Vartanian, Giant, & Passino, 2001). Cultivation theory posits that the more television a person watches, the more that person will believe television life is "real life" (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1994). Those who believe cultivation theory offers an explanation of the relationship between media and body image posit that thin images in the media lead people to believe the thin form is both realistic and ideal. If people do adopt the thin media ideal, researchers would expect a connection in survey research between length of media exposure and endorsement of the most prevalent body type portrayed by the media, the thin woman (Silverstein, Perdue, Peterson, & Kelly, 1986).

A third theoretical backdrop for researchers studying the relationship between media and body image is Bandura's social cognitive theory (Dunkley et al., 2001; Harrison, 1997, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Hofschire & Greenberg, 2002; Waller, Hamilton, & Shaw, 1992). Social cognitive theory assumes that people [earn and model the behaviors of attractive others (Bandura, 1994). Proponents of social cognitive theory posit that young women find thin models in the media attractive and try to imitate them through dieting and, eventually, the development of eating disorders. If young women do attempt to imitate the figures they see on television and in magazines, they would exhibit a greater degree of eating pathology.

Methodological Issues

Thus far, researchers have made some contribution to the understanding of the relationship between media and eating disorders. However, methodological inconsistencies persist, inhibiting our understanding of this relationship.

Construct clarity. A common inconsistency is the use of the term "body image." There has been no consensus on its definition. Therefore, it has been measured in a variety of ways. Some researchers have measured the degree to which subjects are dissatisfied with their bodies in response to media exposure (e.g., Hofschire & Greenberg, 2002; Irving, 1990). Other researchers have examined the degree to which subjects overestimate their body size, using the discrepancy between perceived and actual body size as an indication of body dissatisfaction (e.g., Myers & Biocca, 1992; Vartanian et al., 2001). Others measure the degree of subjects' disordered eating using diagnostic scales for bulimia and anorexia (e.g., Dunkley et al., 2001; Harrison, 2000; Harrison & Cantor, 1997; Jane et al., 1999). Still others measure different constructs such as "importance of appearance" (Borzekowski et al., 2000) and "endorsement of the thin ideal" (e.g., Botta, 1999, 2000; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994).