Career development in middle childhood: a qualitative inquiry.

The purpose of this investigation was to explore childhood career development by examining 4th- and 5th-grade students' career and self-awareness, exploration, and career planning. Responses to written assignments provided qualitative data for analysis. Written narrative data were analyzed using consensual qualitative research methods as described by C. E. Hill, B. J. Thompson, and E. N. Williams (1997). Consistent with theory (D. Super, 1990), children's reflections on prominent career tasks and influences revealed 8 of the 9 (all but curiosity) dimensions of childhood career development as outlined by Super. In addition, participants described their conceptions of work, a domain not explicitly articulated by Super and worthy of further inquiry.

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Despite increased attention to prevention (Heppner, 2000) and a growing involvement in school-to-work initiatives (e.g., Fouad, 1997; Worthington & Juntunen, 1997), research and developmentally based prevention efforts aimed at elementary youth are seriously lacking (Lenhardt & Young, 2001; Whiston & Sexton, 1998). Research suggests that students who drop out of school at age 16 have psychologically disengaged from school as early as Grade 3 (McWhirter, McWhirter, McWhirter, & McWhirter, 1998). Moreover, sixth-through-ninth-grade children have demonstrated very little understanding of how school relates to the real world and seem to have little to no awareness of the skills and knowledge needed for success in the future (Johnson, 2000).

Career guidance provides a fundamental means of promoting equal opportunity and educational equity (Jalongo, 1989). Research explicitly focused on contributing to the conceptual knowledge of childhood career development is urgently needed to inform early career interventions and help children develop a meaningful understanding of the relevance of school-based learning to their future career (Gysbers, 1997; Johnson, 2000). It is critical to add to the knowledge of the career process of all students, particularly those most at risk (i.e., lower socioeconomic, under-privileged groups). Thus, the purpose of this investigation was to contribute to the theoretical knowledge of childhood career development by using a grounded theory approach to explore childhood career development as it naturally unfolds in young children from an underserved urban population.

Career theorists have placed limited emphasis on childhood career development, although it is generally acknowledged that it is during childhood that crucial career-related concepts and attitudes are first formed (e.g., Super, 1990). Super has offered the most comprehensive treatment of childhood career development. In the next section, we review the major tenets of Super's theory.

The growth stage (birth-14 years) was described as a time when the self-concept develops through identification with key figures in the family and school. Super (1990) developed a theoretical model of childhood career development, consisting of nine concepts thought to contribute to career awareness and decision making. These concepts include the following.

* Curiosity: a need leading to inquisitive behavior

* Exploration: activities, such as searching or examining, that elicit information about oneself or one's environment in an attempt to meet curiosity needs

* Information: an awareness of the importance or use of occupational information and how one acquires this information

* Key figures: role models or interesting or helpful people who have played a meaningful role in individuals' lives

* Interests: an awareness of one's likes and dislikes

* Locus of control: the degree to which one feels in control over one's present and future

* Time perspective: an awareness of how the past, present, and future can be used to plan future events

* Self-concept: dimensions of the self in some role, situation, or position performing some set of functions or in some web of relationships

* Planfulness: an awareness of the importance of planning

The extant empirical literature on childhood career development is sparse. In spite of Super's (1990) conceptualization of childhood career development, there has yet to be an adequate empirical examination of the theoretical concepts set forth. Several investigations have addressed children's interests (Tracey, 2002), occupational preferences (Gottfredson, 1981), aspirations and expectations (Helwig, 1998, 2001; Sellers, Satcher, & Comas, 1999), sex role stereotyping, and parental influences on career choice (McMahon & Patton, 1997; Trice, Hughes, Odom, Woods, & McClellan, 1995). Other childhood career development research has revealed developmental and gender differences. For example, Tracey provided evidence that career interests change over time, becoming more stable from elementary to middle school. Helwig (2001) found that the social value of children's occupational aspirations increased in childhood until the beginning of the teen years. In a study of second- through eighth-grade boys, Cook et al. (1996) provided evidence that older boys tend to be more realistic about occupational aspirations and expectations than younger boys. Gender differences have also been found. Vondracek and Kirchner (1974) found that girls ages 3 to 6 years undergo occupational foreclosure at a younger age than do boys. Helwig (2001) reported that boys consistently had more fantasy jobs in their occupational aspirations than girls did. In a study that investigated the structure of fourth- through eighth-grade children's interests, Tracey and Ward (1998) found that girls were more likely than boys to report Artistic, Social, and Conventional interests, whereas boys were more likely than girls to report Realistic and Investigative interests.

Although these investigations add to the knowledge of childhood career development, little systematic research has been conducted to confirm theoretical assumptions evident in childhood models of life span career development (e.g., Super, 1990). This is particularly problematic given assumptions that the establishment of interests, motivation, and other career behaviors occurs in childhood (Gottfredson, 1981; Tracey, 2002). An empirically supported theoretical understanding of childhood career development is needed to facilitate lifelong learning and the development of coherent programs suited to the changing needs of children over time. Moreover, much of the existing research has been conducted with middle-class suburban youth, limiting the knowledge of more diverse groups in terms of socioeconomic status (SES) and racial/ethnic background. Economically challenged schools continue to face obstacles in effectively preparing youth for a successful transition to work and career because economic and oppressive forces exert a powerful influence on students' academic success and career expectations (Schultheiss, in press-a, in press-b; Weinger, 2000). Early career interventions provide the ideal venue for the promotion of social action initiatives aimed at improving academic achievement and expanding future career options for all students. Thus, an empirically informed theoretical understanding of the childhood career development process is essential to improve theoretical models and early career interventions.

The purpose of this discovery-oriented investigation was to use a data-driven approach to explore the career development process with a relatively understudied population in terms of age, SES, and racial/ethnic background. The objective was to qualitatively assess participants' knowledge of self and occupational information, the role of significant others, education and work goals, and the decision-making process. How do children conceive of themselves (i.e., abilities, interests) and possible future jobs? How do children perceive others to be influential in their career development process? What goals do children hold? How do young students make important decisions? Are there differences apparent across gender and age? This study builds on the theoretical and empirical literature on life span career development by examining an important, yet overlooked, aspect of life span theory: the middle childhood years. Using written responses to open-ended questions, an in-depth analysis of the career development process in childhood is provided.

Method

Participants

Forty-nine (19 boys, 30 girls) urban elementary school students in the Midwest participated in this study. Ages ranged from 9 to 12 years (M = 10.35, SD = 0.79), and students were in fourth (34 students) and fifth grade (15 students). Participants were 59% European American, 24% African American, 13% Hispanic American, and 4% other (e.g., Arab American, Native American, or Asian American). Eighty-nine percent qualified for free lunch. According to state proficiency test standards, these students met academic proficiency in all academic areas (i.e., mathematics, writing, science, and citizenship) except reading.

Measures