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Weekly UpdatesABSTRACT
Technological advances have brought about the ever-increasing utilisation of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) media in the learning of a second language (L2). Computer-mediated communication, for example, provides a practical means for extending the learning of spoken language, a challenging process in tonal languages such as Chinese, beyond the realms of the classroom. In order to effectively improve spoken language competency, however, CALL applications must also reproduce the social interaction that lies at the heart of language learning and language use. This study draws on data obtained from the utilisation of CALL in the learning of L2 Chinese to explore whether this medium can be used to extend opportunities for rapport-building in language teaching beyond the face-to-face interaction of the classroom. Rapport's importance lies in its potential to enhance learning, motivate learners, and reduce learner anxiety. To date, CALL's potential in relation to this facet of social interaction remains a neglected area of research. The results of this exploratory study suggest that CALL may help foster learner-teacher rapport and that scaffolding, such as strategically composing rapport-fostering questions in sound-files, is conducive to this outcome. The study provides an instruction model for this application of CALL.
INTRODUCTION
The role of the computer in the second language-learning classroom continues to expand in tandem with advances in and increased access to technologies. These technologies have allowed language instructors to provide what could previously only be classroom activities in new and relevant formats and contexts, as well as enabling the realisation of pedagogical practices and goals not readily achieved beforehand. One of the latter benefits of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) technologies, specifically computer-mediated communication, has been the extension of the language learning experience beyond the confines of the classroom. Increased flexibility, reduced negative affect (compared to face-to-face interaction), and the ability to cater to differing learning styles have seen the incorporation of CALL into the language learning curriculum as "generally well received by learners and perceived as providing positive learning outcomes" (Ramsay, 2003, p. 17).
The above utilitarian benefits of CALL are well documented, as are those relating to its broader potential in the social-interactive realm (Chester & Gwynne, 1998; Malaga, 2000; McCormack & Jones, 1998; McKenzie & Murphy, 2000; Ramsay, 2003; Tetiwat & Igbaria, 2000; Whittle, Dal Pozzo, & Gregory, 2000). Both Bax (2003) and Warschauer (2000) for example, after having reviewed the history of CALL, agree that CALL has reached an era where it promotes interactive learning, namely "social interaction" (Warschauer, p. 1) or "genuine communication" (Bax, p. 23) in the target language. Such studies have in the main focussed on CALL's contribution to the development of "learning communities," interactive spaces extending beyond the classroom where learners "work together toward their common goals ... share information in the pursuit of a meaningful, consequential task ... [and reflect] on the knowledge constructed and the processes used to construct it by the learners" (Daniels & Brooks, 1999, p. 84). Less attention, however, has been given to examining another facet of the social-interactive realm that nevertheless remains of equal consequence to the CALL experience: the phenomenon of learner-teacher rapport.
This study seeks to address the gap in research in this area. It investigates the means and extent to which the use of CALL in a tertiary Chinese language spoken-stream course contributes to the development of learner-teacher rapport, an essential element of social interaction in pedagogical contexts. In so doing, the study will present an instruction model for maximising the potential for realising this phenomenon in the language-learning environment.
Why Do Language Teachers Need to Build Up Rapport With Learners?
At the core of social interaction is the phenomenon of rapport. Tickle-Degnen and Rosenthal (1990) have observed that rapport is composed of "a dynamic structure of interrelating components that have affective and behavioural implications" (p. 285), namely "mutual attentiveness," "positivity," and "coordination" (p. 285). They emphasise that "rapport exists only in interaction" and "the presence of a high degree of rapport between individuals has been thought to create powerful interpersonal influence and responsiveness" (p. 286).
Indeed, the importance of rapport has long been recognized across all walks of life: "Clinicians try to develop it [italics added throughout quote] with patients, sales personnel try to use it to make a deal, and new acquaintances try to predict from it the future of a relationship with one another" (Tickle-Degnen & Rosenthal, 1990, p. 285). Moreover, "Hypnotists work to invoke it [italics added throughout quote], teachers and trainers strive to maintain it, some politicians and public speakers have the knack for creating it, and physicians are frequently chastised for not being concerned with it" (LaFrance, 1990, p. 318). Thus, rapport can be considered as extremely important in classroom management given that, as Cothran and Ennis (1997) have commented, "The interactive nature of the teaching process is built on a social relationship between teacher and students" (p. 542).
Ehrman (1998) has quoted a number of learners' comments from evaluations of language training programs to emphasise the importance of the role of learner-teacher rapport in language learning. Although learners do mention well-designed textbooks and a suitable curriculum as positive forces, their true enthusiasm is reserved for their teachers and the relationships the teacher establishes with them. As Ehrman has concluded,
In sum, building up rapport with learners is essential for a teacher to teach successfully for the following reasons:
(1) Rapport enhances learning: Teachers can help make learning more enjoyable by consciously building up rapport with learners. It is common knowledge that human beings are driven by emotional factors in whatever they do. Learners of language are no exception in being driven by emotional factors in their learning. It is thus worthwhile for teachers to make a special effort in developing rapport with their learners. The more successful a teacher is in developing a rapport with learners, the more likely it is that they will enjoy the class and put more effort into the course being taught (Ehrman, 1998).
(2) Rapport helps motivate learners: Learner motivation is crucial to learning. Learners have various motivations in their learning and learner-teacher rapport is one of them. A link is strongly suggested by Gardner and his colleagues (Gardner, 1985, 1988; Gardner & Lambert, 1959, 1972; Gardner & Smythe, 1975) between motivation and second language (L2) learning. They believe that "attitudes and integrativeness," being important motivational aspects in L2 learning, "determine the level of proficiency achieved by different learners" (Yu, 2002, p. 21). Although facets of a learner's motivation are beyond a teacher's control, there is still much that a teacher can do to influence the motivation of his or her students. Developing rapport with learners is an effective measure of motivating them, which is supported by Dornyei's (1994) L2 motivation model. In this model, learner-teacher rapport, namely the "Affiliative Drive" (p. 280) is one of the important motivation components.
(3) Rapport reduces learners' anxiety: Anxiety contributes to an affective filter, according to Krashen (1982), which makes the individual unreceptive to language input; thus, the learner fails to internalise the available target language messages and language acquisition does not progress smoothly. Price's (1991) study shows that instructors play a significant role in the amount of anxiety each learner experiences in their classes. In answering the question "How can language learning be made less stressful" (p. 106), Price (1991) offers very concrete suggestions, among which: "the most frequent observation made by these subjects was that they would feel more comfortable if the instructor were more like a friend helping them to learn and less like an authority figure making them perform" (p. 107).
Rapport building, therefore, lies at the centre of good teaching practice and successful language learning. Can this phenomenon be developed in the CALL environment? Some researchers have expressed concern that an overemphasis on technology can "dehumanise" learning, resulting in a breakdown in the learnerteacher relationship: "The possibility that the use of computers may lead to dehumanisation continues to trouble critics of computers in schools" (Nissenbaum & Walker, 1998, p. 244). In the following, we will explore the issue of rapport-building in relation to tertiary learners of spoken Chinese, evaluating the means and the extent to which CALL can be used to extend opportunities for rapport-building in language teaching beyond the face-to-face interaction of the classroom.
How Did We Make Use of Sound-Files and E-mail in Teaching Spoken Chinese?
In the second semester of 2003 computer-mediated sound-file exercises were incorporated as part of the curriculum for Spoken Chinese IIB (CHIN2120), taught by the authors at The University of Queensland, Australia. Every week for 10 weeks a sound-file question based on the theme of the weekly lesson was composed, recorded, and attached as a sound-file to a posting on the discussion board of the course's Web site on WebCT, an online platform used by The University of Queensland. Learners were required to listen to the sound-file question and reply with their own attached sound-file by the deadline stated in the discussion posting's text box. An instructor (one of the authors) listened to the learner sound-file replies each week and provided individual feedback through e-mail in a timely manner. The WebCT discussion board maintained a permanent, accessible record, which could be used to evaluate a learner's progress throughout the semester. A sample posting follows:
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