Towards community- and scientific-based information integration in marine resource management in Indonesia: Bunaken National Park case study.

Abstract

Community involvement in marine resource management is evolving in Indonesia. In 1997 a major initiative was undertaken by the Government of Indonesia to decentralize management efforts from central to local levels for several national marine parks, including Bunaken National Park in the northern region of the country. This initiative marked a major milestone in the process of democratic reform. In this article, the evolution of Bunaken National Park community involvement in marine resource management prior to the period of democratic reform until the present is described. In the current and still evolving management strategy, community involvement occurs in a collaborative manner with input from government and non-government stakeholders. This research highlights the centerpiece of collaborative efforts, the participatory zonation process and product, and the differing roles of community and scientific information in the zonation construction process. Community-based information, for example, provides local perspectives on the use of shared coastal resources, while scientific information provides insight into the health status of resources within shallow water areas. In September 2004, the Bunaken Park Management Advisory Board (MAB) acknowledged the need to integrate greater scientific information into its management strategy for marine resource evaluation and monitoring purposes. This presents a unique opportunity to examine how satellite imagery, which may be used to identify the spatial location of specific coastal features and detect their change through time, can be linked with local community participation for the purpose of managing human activities within a marine resources environment. Thus, this article contributes to ongoing research linking geospatial technologies with local community participation. Conclusions move beyond suggestions regarding the importance and value of incorporating community knowledge with remote sensing technology, identifying prominent issues for consideration. These are presented as a series of steps.

En Indonesie, on constate une evolution en ce qui a trait C de la participation des collectivites C la gestion des ressources marines. En 1997, une importante initiative a ete entreprise par le gouvernement de l'Indonesie pour decentraliser les efforts de gestion C des niveaux locaux dans plusieurs parcs marins nationaux, notamment dans le Bunaken National Park, situe dans le nord du pays. Cette initiative constitue un jalon important dans le processus de reforme democratique. Dans cet article, les auteurs decrivent l'evolution de la gestion des ressources marines, de la periode precedant la reforme democratique jusqu'C maintenant. Dans l'actuelle strategie de gestion, toujours en evolution, la participation communautaire se fait en collaboration, avec la participation d'intervenants gouvernementaux et non gouvernementaux. Dans cette recherche, on souligne le produit et le processus du zonage participatif, qui sont au coeur des efforts communs, de meme que les rfles differents que jouent l'information communautaire et l'information scientifique dans le processus de construction du zonage. Par exemple, l'information provenant de la collectivite procure des perspectives locales sur l'utilisation des ressources cftieres partagees, alors que l'information scientifique fournit des connaissances sur l'etat de sante des ressources dans les eaux peu profondes. En septembre 2004 le conseil consultatif de gestion (CCG) du parc Bunaken a reconnu le besoin d'integrer davantage d'information scientifique C sa strategie de gestion, C des fins d'evaluation et de surveillance des ressources marines. Cela represente une occasion exceptionnelle d'evaluer comment l'imagerie par satellite, que l'on peut utiliser pour reperer spatialement des caracteristiques cftieres particulieres et en detecter les changements au fil du temps, peut etre liee C la participation des collectivites locales, dans le but de gerer les activites humaines dans un environment de ressources marines. Ainsi, cet article contribue C la recherche continue liant les technologies geospatiales et la participation des collectivites locales. Les conclusions vont au-delC des recommandations concernant l'importance et la pertinence d'incorporer la connaissance des collectivites C la technologie de teledetection, en degageant d'importants enjeux C examiner, qui sont presentes comme une serie d'etapes.

Keywords:

remote sensing, community participation, management, Indonesia

**********

Introduction

Bunaken National Park (BNP) is located in the Coral Triangle--the area of richest marine biodiversity in the oceans--in Indonesia. The Park's 89,000 hectares provides habitat to more than 1000 species of coral reef fish and 400 species of hard coral representing 63 genera and 15 families (Mehta, 2000). Each island within the park is surrounded by a fringing reef that drops to over 2000 meters, providing deep channels for migrating pelagic species, including sharks and whales (Mehta, 2000). Portions of the park located along the mainland, host over 30 mangrove species, which provide protection for dugongs, turtles, and giant clams (Mehta, 2000). Since its origin, the park has maintained a high conservation value that has been internationally recognized. Concurrently, tourism potential has continued to expand and the park has become an internationally acclaimed diving 'hotspot' (Turak and DeVantier, 2003). Diving and marine enthusiasts are drawn from around the world, each year contributing to the economic growth of Manado and the surrounding area. Within the park reside over 30,000 villagers and 22 dive operations, which host up to 10,000 foreign visitors each year (Turak and DeVantier, 2003). Both villagers and dive operators depend on a healthy coral reef ecosystem for their livelihoods, as well as for a main source of protein in their diet. In 1991, BNP was declared Indonesia's first national marine park. The park has since been divided into three sections: an island section, northern mainland section, and southern mainland section (Figure 1). Each section has unique biophysical characteristics that draw tourists. At this time, the majority of tourism development continues to focus on the island section of the park, particularly around Bunaken Island.

Evolving Management Strategies for Bunaken National Park

Until the Asian economic crisis in 1997, the Ministry of Forestry primarily managed BNP. Regional conservation offices received directives from the Ministry and implemented rules and regulations with minimal to no input from local communities. Park management was based on enforcement (Weber and Saunders, 1996). Looking to other parts of the world for management models, the Ministry fused various techniques, resulting in a single method that involved keeping villagers out of sensitive areas. Fencing out villagers living in highly populated areas became undesirable however, as it resulted in increasing pressures in other parts of the park. Enforcement brought about frustrations within communities, as directives were incompatible with local people's perspectives, traditions, and basic livelihood strategies (BCCF member, personal communication, May 2004). (See list of acronyms in Appendix.) At the operational level, under-trained and unequipped park staff could not sustain enforcement. At the Ministry level, no representative on the park management Board had the expertise to translate the benefits and costs of applying closed land-based management approaches to an open marine-based system (Erdmann et al., 2004).

A second management approach followed, which focused on integrated conservation and development projects (Wells, 1998). This approach was considered 'community-based', but was actually no less structured and government-directed than previously. This 'integrated' approach, however, did provide opportunities for community involvement (Weber and Saunders, 1996). It also improved relationships between the Ministry and communities and focused attention on environmental issues (Wells, 1998). Over time, projects favored particular groups, which generated discontent among villagers. Numerous communities were left with a sense of abandonment, as threats to their resources continued at a staggering rate (Erdmann et al., 2004).

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Disconnection between various government and local management bodies caused frustrations in the park as major stakeholders continued to observe a decline in the quality of their marine resources and no corresponding remedial action (NSWA member, personal communication, May 2004). Mixed messages from local and national offices led local communities to question their future role in the park and the future role of their coastal investments. The message that basic funds for management were minimal, however, was particularly clear (NSWA member, personal communication, May 2004). In 1997, government budgets for park management were reduced considerably and, the 'conservation' focus that had evolved over the years within the Ministry of Forestry for marine resource management was lost (Erdmann et al., 2004).