Seasonal migration and improving living standards in Vietnam.

(2.60) Electricity in commune 0.45 --

(0.50) Average education level, 5.59 -- Commune, 1993 (1.87) Percent born in 0.039 --

Hanoi or HCMC (0.144) Percent commune, migrating 0.033 --

(0.052) Note: Standard deviations in parentheses. Sample size is 3A92. Table A2. Regressions Explaining Changes in Seasonal Migration, Vietnam, 1993-1998 Model (1) (2) Commune share of migrants, 1993 1.486 1.435

(0.508) (0.517) Commune share, born in Hanoi 0.623 0.910

or HCMC, 1993 (0.272) (0.300) Changes in household demographics Number of women, aged fifty-five and over 0.017 0.017

(0.024) (0.025) Number of men, aged sixty and over 0.029 0.029

(0.025) (0.026) Number of women, aged eighteen to fifty-four 0.026 0.024

(0.013) (0.013) Number of men, aged eighteen to fifty-nine 0.049 0.049

(0.014) (0.014) Number of children, aged six to seventeen -0.014 -0.015

(0.006) (0.006) Household characteristics, 1993 Gender of head (1 = male) Years of schooling,

household head Age of household head Age of head, squared Total land holdings, 1993

(hectares) Log value of productive assets, 1993 Commune characteristics, 1993 Distance to road (km) -0.003

(0.003) Log, commune population 0.019

(0.026) Total land, commune 0.004

(heactare) (0.007) Electricity in commune -0.054

(1 = yes) (0.036) Average education level, commune 0.005

(0.010) Distance to Hanoi (km/100) 0.009

(0.018) Distance to HCMC (km/100) 0.021

(0.020) Number of observations 3,492 3,462 [R.sup.2] 0.055 0.059 F statistic 7.70 9.42 p-value, F statistic 0.0007 0.0002 Model (3) (4) Commune share of migrants, 1993 1.423 1.424

(0.513) (0.513) Commune share, born in Hanoi 0.937 0.941

or HCMC, 1993 (0.300) (0.299) Changes in household demographics Number of women, aged fifty-five and over 0.016 0.015

(0.024) (0.024) Number of men, aged sixty and over 0.021 0.021

(0.026) (0.027) Number of women, aged eighteen to fifty-four 0.021 0.021

(0.013) (0.013) Number of men, aged eighteen to fifty-nine 0.046 0.046

(0.014) (0.014) Number of children, aged six to seventeen -0.017 -0.017

(0.007) (0.007) Household characteristics, 1993 Gender of head (1 = male) 0.030 0.031

(0.021) (0.021) Years of schooling, 0.001 0.001

household head (0.003) (0.003) Age of household head 0.002 0.002

(0.003) (0.003) Age of head, squared -0.004 -0.004

(0.003) (0.003) Total land holdings, 1993 0.012

(hectares) (0.029) Log value of productive -0.003 assets, 1993 (0.012) Commune characteristics, 1993 Distance to road (km) -0.003 -0.003

(0.003) (0.003) Log, commune population 0.02 0.021

(0.026) (0.026) Total land, commune 0.004 0.002

(heactare) (0.007) (0.006) Electricity in commune -0.052 -0.052

(1 = yes) (0.036) (0.036) Average education level, commune 0.003 0.003

(0.010) (0.010) Distance to Hanoi (km/100) 0.007 0.007

(0.018) (0.018) Distance to HCMC (km/100) 0.02 0.02

(0.020) (0.020) Number of observations 3,462 3,462 [R.sup.2] 0.062 0.062 F statistic 9.67 9.65 p-value, F statistic 0.0001 0.0001 Note: Cluster corrected standard errors in parentheses. The T statistic, distributed with (2,116) degrees of freedom, is cluster corrected and tests the hypothesis that the coefficients on the instruments in the first stage are jointly zero.

We are grateful to Steve Boucher, Zhuo Chen, John Gibson, David McKenzie, Steve Sheppard, Lara Shore-Sheppard, three anonymous referees, and seminar participants at the American Agricultural Economics Association meetings, Denver, Colorado, the International Food Policy Research Institute, and Williams College for helpful comments, de Brauw acknowledges the support of the Henry George Fund at Williams College.

[Received September 2004; accepted June 2006.]

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