Seasonal migration and improving living standards in Vietnam.

commune commune Weighting? no yes Number of observations 3,458 3,458 F statistic, instruments Hansen J statistic 0.5537 0.47 Hansen J statistic, p-value 0.4568 0.493 Centered [R.sup.2] -0.0044 -0.0051

Expenditures per Dependent Variable Adult Equivalent Model

-3 -4 Number of migrants, 0.054 0.054 household -0.025 -0.025 Changes in household demographics Number of women, (0.020) (0.020)

aged fifty five and over -0.004 -0.004 Number of men, -0.016 -0.017

aged sixty and over (0.004) (0.004) Number of women, -0.021 -0.021

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.003) (0.003) Number of men, -0.013 -0.014

aged eighteen to fifty-nine (0.003) (0.003) Number of children, 0.0003 0.0004

aged six to seventeen (0.001) (0.001) Other controls Household, Household,

commune commune Weighting? no yes Number of observations 3,462 3,462 F statistic, instruments Hansen J statistic 0.3174 0.3906 Hansen J statistic, p-value 0.5732 0.532 Centered [R.sup.2] 0.0202 0.0198

Per Capita Dependent Variable Expenditures Model

(5) (6) Number of migrants, 0.052 0.053 household -0.024 -0.024 Changes in household demographics Number of women, -0.019 -0.018

aged fifty five and over (0.004) (0.004) Number of men, -0.012 -0.013

aged sixty and over (0.004) (0.004) Number of women, -0.019 -0.019

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.003) (0.003) Number of men, -0.007 -0.008

aged eighteen to fifty-nine (0.003) (0.003) Number of children, -0.006 -0.006

aged six to seventeen (0.001) (0.001) Other controls Household, Household,

commune commune Weighting? no yes Number of observations 3,462 3,462 F statistic, instruments Hansen J statistic 0.3768 0.457 Hansen J statistic, p-value 0.5393 0.499 Centered [R.sup.2] 0.0173 0.0165 Note: In all columns, specification is the same as in column (4) of table 4. Observations in columns (2), (4), and (6) are weighted by the inverse of the estimated probability that the household stayed in the sample. Other notes are the same as for table 4. Table 6. Regressions Explaining Effect of Migration on z-Scores of Children Aged One to Ten in 1993, Vietnam

Children Aged

One to Five

(1) (2) Number of migrants, 0.095 0.162

household (0.333) (0.339) Gender of child (1 = male) -0.012 -0.012

(0.043) (0.043) Changes in household demographics Number of women, -0.002 0.022

aged fifty-five and over (0.100) (0.098) Number of men, 0.116 0.120

aged sixty and over (0.106) (0.104) Number of women, -0.043 -0.052

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.050) (0.052) Number of men, 0.054 0.042

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.046) (0.047) Number of children, 0.006 -0.011

aged six to seventeen (0.024) (0.026) Other controls Household,

commune Number of observations 1,773 1,769 Hansen J statistic 0.1748 0.3369 p-value, Hansen J statistic, 0.6758 0.5616 p-value Centered [R.sup.2] 0.0381 0.0463 Adjusted [R.sup.2] 0.0288 0.0309

Children Aged

One to Eight

(3) (4) Number of migrants, 0.388 0.450

household (0.229) (0.271) Gender of child (1 = male) -0.07 -0.067

(0.032) (0.033) Changes in household demographics Number of women, 0.024 0.034

aged fifty-five and over (0.068) (0.068) Number of men, 0.041 0.043

aged sixty and over (0.081) (0.084) Number of women, -0.016 -0.017

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.039) (0.040) Number of men, 0.036 0.027

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.037) (0.037) Number of children, 0.004 -0.011

aged six to seventeen (0.019) (0.020) Other controls Household,

commune Number of observations 2,974 2,966 Hansen J statistic 0.0847 0.2101 p-value, Hansen J statistic, 0.771 0.6467 p-value Centered [R.sup.2] 0.0331 0.0274 Adjusted [R.sup.2] 0.0266 0.0171

Children Aged

One to Ten

(5) (6) Number of migrants, 0.375 0.423

household (0.231) (0.252) Gender of child (1 = male) -0.034 -0.034

(0.028) (0.028) Changes in household demographics Number of women, 0.018 0.027

aged fifty-five and over (0.054) (0.054) Number of men, -0.003 -0.003

aged sixty and over (0.073) (0.075) Number of women, -0.012 -0.010

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.033) (0.034) Number of men, 0.041 0.035

aged eighteen to fifty-four (0.031) (0.031) Number of children, 0.008 -0.005

aged six to seventeen (0.016) (0.017) Other controls Household,

commune Number of observations 3,770 3,755 Hansen J statistic 0.4029 0.5503 p-value, Hansen J statistic, 0.5256 0.4582 p-value Centered [R.sup.2] 0.0355 0.0304 Adjusted [R.sup.2] 0.0298 0.0218 Note: All columns include child age dummies (in vears). Columns (2). (4). and (6) also include all household and commune controls in column 4 of table 4. Other notes are the same as for table 4. Table 7. Poverty and Inequality Statistics for Rural Vietnam, 1993 and 1998, with and without Migration

1993 1998 1988,

No Migration Poverty rate, individuals 60.4% 44.1% 47.4%

(2.10) (2.40) (2.40) Gini coefficient 0.269 0.280 0.281

(0.009) (0.010) (0.009) Theil ratio 0.128 0.140 0.139

(0.010) (0.012) (0.010) Note: Standard errors clustered at the commune level are in parentheses. Poverty rates are measured among individuals and are calculated using per capita expenditures and World Bank poverty line of 1,790,000 Vietnamese dong in January, 1998 prices. The Gini coefficient and Theil ratio are calculated using panel household and standard errors are clustered at the commune level.