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Weekly UpdatesEver since the PLATO system of the 1960's, CALL (computer assisted language learning) has had a major focus on providing self-paced, auto-correcting exercises for language learners to practice their skills and improve their knowledge of discrete areas of language learning. The computer has been recognized from the beginning as a patient and tireless--if inflexible--tutor, allowing students to practice repeatedly, completing drill exercises with the computer program providing feedback. Chunks of knowledge for which identifiable right and wrong answers can be provided enable the creation of selfcorrecting exercises. Unfortunately, human language is notoriously more difficult to adapt to this kind of computer-based instruction than are other areas of knowledge like mathematics. Language is so much more fluid and ambivalent than numbers and equations that basic pattern drills in language learning can accomplish only so much. Moreover, self-correcting computer drills seem inconsistent with the current model of communicative language learning based on meaningful task-based interactions with the language. Yet such exercises continue to be created and used and can still play a useful role, particularly when paired with more open-ended, communicative tools and integrated into a multimedia-rich, collaborative on-line language instruction environment.
The advent of the Web (and particularly of JavaScript) as well as of digital multimedia has provided new options and capabilities for creation of language exercises. At the same time, the Web has become the preferred platform for delivery of intelligent tutoring systems, which provide a rich context for self-paced instruction. The complexity of these systems has been a formidable obstacle to involvement of language professionals. Now authoring tools are becoming available which allow language teachers to become active participants in this process. At the same time, new initiatives in educational technology standards (3rd edition of SCORM 2004, IMS Common Cartridge) provide new opportunities for the creation and distribution of on-line language learning resources.
SELF-CORRECTING WEB EXERCISES
Most language drills used today are created for delivery through a Web browser, particularly if these are materials being created by language instructors themselves. The arrival of JavaScript (in 1996) has slowly displaced most other alternatives for creation of self-correcting exercises. In its decade of existence, JavaScript (the official standard is called ECMAScript) has steadily added features, becoming a robust, object-compliant scripting language with a full set of core functions. JavaScript now has the ability to do sophisticated pattern matching through standard "grep" (general regular expression parsing), which is important for parsing input to check for needed inflections, verb endings or word roots. Its ability to manipulate arrays gives it a rudimentary database-like functionality, important for tracking user actions, while its interaction with the elements of a Web page through the DOM (document object model), allows on the fly changes to Web page content. Developers who remember the days of HyperCard or Toolbook, however, will still miss in JavaScript some of the functionality available in those authoring environments; in particular, seamless multimedia integration and access to creating and manipulating elements of the GUI (graphic user interface) such as buttons. In contrast to those programs, however, JavaScript is thankfully independent of operating systems and largely Web browser neutral.
It would take an intrepid language teacher today to create from scratch interactive exercises using JavaScript. The existence of several easy-to-use authoring tools thankfully make that unnecessary, unless the supplied exercise templates do not fit the instructor's (and students') needs. The tools most often used by US language instructors are Quia and Hot Potatoes, both of which have been in existence for some time and have developed an ever-increasing array of exercise types. They also take advantage of the dynamic combination of JavaScript and CSS (cascading style sheets) to allow for quite sophisticated drag-and-drop type interactions. Both tools allow for integration of multimedia, although that requires some manual editing of the HTML code. The current resource list for shared exercises created with Quia demonstrates how active language instructors have been in creating exercises in that environment, with 32 languages represented, from the usual suspects to some unexpected finds, like Basque, Jersey French, and Samoan. The list for Hot Potatoes is similarly extensive. Other tools for creating interactive Web exercises include WebPractest (created by Gary Smith of the College of William and Mary) and WebAuthor (from the University of Pennsylvania).
JavaScript has become popular as a means to create authoring templates because it is text-based and need not be compiled, making it a simple process to create a means for users to plug in their own materials alongside the JavaScript, CSS, and HTML needed for interactive functionality. This is not possible using alternatives such as Java or Flash, since they are distributed as compiled programs not as text. However, it is possible to write a generic Java applet or Flash movie, which could read in data stored in an external text or XML file. This technique, common in some learning environments, seems rarely to be used in language learning. One of the advantages of using one of these two options is easier multimedia integration, especially in the case of Flash. However, the complexity of authoring in Java or Flash, particularly to create a template-based system, has likely been the main factor that has sent developers to JavaScript instead. An exception to this pattern is SMILE from Michigan State University, a program for creating Flash-based interactive language-learning exercises.
Another technique in wide usage in other areas, but not in language learning is Ajax (short for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML). The use of Ajax offers the compelling possibility of integration of server-based resources into Web-delivered activities, thus enabling real database integration including possible features such as random exercise generation, dynamic sentence generation, or persistent user tracking. One of the few language learning examples of Ajax use I have seen is a Flashcard program from LikeThought called Lexicon. The advantage of adding a server back-end capacity to JavaScript language drills through Ajax is the ability to store data on a Web server. JavaScript does not offer a good way to store significant amounts of data, as browser cookies have several limitations. The use of Ajax also overcomes the delays associated with server-based interactions as data is downloaded in the background as needed and kept in the browser memory (through JavaScript) until ready to be displayed or to be called upon in user interactions.
SELF-PACED INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS AND COURSES
Tools such as Quia and Hot Potatoes are used principally for the creation of learning exercises for the practice of grammar, vocabulary, or reading/listening comprehension. For the most part the exercises are targeted at language learners at the novice level. The exercises created with these tools tend to be used independently of one another. A more complete set of self-instructional materials can be found in commercial products, which offer a full range of learning exercises from novice to advanced levels. Products such as ELLIS, Tell Me More, or Rosetta Stone offer learning environments which allow for development of all language skills. These and other such programs are built around pre-planned lessons with distinct goals prescribed in a linear, guided path. This kind of self-directed study is the traditional model for CBT or computer-based training. Of course, the products mentioned above go far beyond the simple text-based interactions associated with CBT. The addition of graphics, audio, and video, as well as in some cases, advanced technologies such as voice recognition, adds a powerful dimension to the programs.
The Critical Language Series are multimedia CD-ROMs/DVDs developed at the University of Arizona for less commonly taught languages, which provide, through rich use of multimedia and self-correcting exercises, the equivalent of a self-paced beginning textbook and workbook. Each of the programs was developed in association with the National Association of Self-Instructional Language Programs (NASILP), which promotes self-directed language study in the US. The Critical Language series was built using the teacher-friendly MaxAuthor authoring system, which allows for creation of a variety of learning activities and supports 47 different languages. Programs developed in MaxAuthor can be delivered on digital media or over the Internet.
In addition to such courseware, several Web sites created by public service institutions, universities, or private companies provide extensive language learning environments, which focus on learners working their way through a set of prepared lessons. One of the best of these sites is that created by the BBC, which offers online courses in seven languages. The BBC course, as well as other sites such as Unilang, offers additional complementary features such as discussion boards. The fact that the language learning resources are on the Web allows for multi-user communication and peer interactions not usually available with software delivered on CD, DVD, or a local area network. The disadvantage of the language Web sites, however, is the lack of integration among the various exercises, tools and services provided. An exception is the online elementary French course offered by Carnegie Mellon University. The course offers a fully integrated on-line environment, with rich use of original multimedia to support the selfpaced instructional program.
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