Trends in the elemental composition of fine particulate matter in Santiago, Chile, from 1998 to 2003.(TECHNICAL PAPER)

Despite concentration decreases over the study period, levels of Pb and other toxic elements exceed typical concentrations found in the United States. Also, [PM.sub.2.5] concentrations remain high, exceeding EPA ambient air quality standards, and thus justifying continuing efforts to improve air quality. To achieve this, we suggest that further measures focus on control of both transport and industrial emissions.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The filter samples were collected by the Servicio de Salud Metropolitano del Ambiente of the Ministry of Health. The data analysis was supported by the Comision Nacional del Medio Ambiente. The authors thank Yolanda Silva Cerna and Ignacio Olaeta Undabarrena for their assistance in the collection and analysis of filter samples.

REFERENCES

1. Romero, H.; Ihl, M.; Rivera, A.; Zalazar, P.; Azocar, P. Rapid Urban Growth, Land-Use Changes and Air Pollution in Santiago, Chile; Atmos. Environ. 1999, 33, 4039-4047.

2. Tsapakis, M.; Lagoudaki, E.; Stephanou, E.G.; Kavouras, I.G.; Koutrakis, P.; Oyola, P;. Von Baer, D. The Composition and Sources of [PM.sub.2.5] Organic Aerosol in Two Urban Areas of Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 3851-3863.

3. Jorquera, H. Air Quality at Santiago, Chile: a Box Modeling Approach: I--Carbon Monoxide, Nitrogen Oxides and Sulfur Dioxide; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 315-330.

4. Jorquera, H. Air Quality at Santiago, Chile: a Box Modeling Approach: II--[PM.sub.2.5], Coarse and [PM.sub.10] Particulate Matter Fractions; Atmos. Environ. 2002, 36, 331-344.

5. Adonis, M.; Gil, L. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Levels and Mutagenicity of Inhalable Particulate Matter in Santiago, Chile; Inhal. Toxicol. 2000, 12, 1173-1183.

6. Artaxo, P.; Oyola, P.; Martinez, R. Aerosol Composition and Source Apportionment in Santiago de Chile; Nucl. Instrum. Meth. B. 1999, 150, 409-416.

7. Gil, L.; King, L.; Adonis, M. Trends of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Levels and Mutagenicity in Santiago's Inhalable Airborne Particles in the Period 1992-1996; Inhal. Toxicol. 2000, 12, 1185-1204.

8. Kavouras, I.G.; Lawrence, J.; Koutrakis, P.; Stephanou, E.G.; Oyola, P. Measurement of Particulate Aliphatic and Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Santiago de Chile: Source Reconciliation and Evaluation of Sampling Artifacts; Atmos. Environ. 1999, 33, 4977-4986.

9. Rappengluck, B.; Oyola, P.; Olaeta, I.; Fabian, P. The Evolution of Photochemical Smog in the Metropolitan Area of Santiago de Chile; J. Appl. Meteorol. 2000, 39, 275-290.

10. Sanhueza, P.; Vargas, C.; Jimenez, J. Daily Mortality in Santiago and its Relationship with Air Pollution; Rev. Med. Chile 1999, 127, 235-242.

11. Cifuentes, L.A.; Vega, J.; Kopfer, K.; Lava, L.B. Effect of the Fine Fraction of Particulate Matter Versus the Coarse Mass and Other Pollutants on Daily Mortality in Santiago, Chile; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2000, 50, 1287-1298.

12. Lee, S.A.; Hastie, T.; Mancilla, P.F.; Astudillo, P.O.; Kuschner, W.G. Fine Particulate Air Pollution ([PM.sub.2.5]) and Medical Visits for Lower Respiratory Tract Illness among Children in Santiago, Chile; J. Invest. Med. 2000, 48, 96A-96A.

13. Ilabaca, M.; Olaeta, I.; Campos, E.; Villaire, J.; Tellez-Rojo, M.M.; Romieu, I. Association between Levels of Fine Particulate and Emergency Visits for Pneumonia and Other Respiratory Illnesses among Children in Santiago, Chile; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 1999, 49, 154-163.

14. Ostro, B.D.; Eskeland, G.S.; Sanchez, J.M.; Feyzioglu, T. Air Pollution and Health Effects: a Study of Medical Visits among Children in Santiago, Chile; Environ. Health Perspect. 1999, 107, 69-73.

15. Health Effects Institute. Understanding the Health Effects of Components of the Particulate Matter Mix. Progress and Next Steps in HEI Perspectives. Health Effects Institute: Cambridge, MA, 2002.

16. Laden, F.; Neas, L.M.; Dockery, D.W.; Schwartz, J. Association of Fine Particulate Matter from Different Sources with Daily Mortality in Six US Cities; Environ. Health Perspect. 2000, 108, 941-947.

17. Jorquera, H.; Palma, W.; Tapia, J. An Intervention Analysis of Air Quality Data at Santiago, Chile; Atmos. Environ. 2000, 34, 4073-4084.

18. Koutrakis, P.; Sax, S.N.; Sarnat, J.A.; Coull, B.; Demokritou, P.; Oyola, P.; Garcia, J.; Gramsch, E. Analysis of [PM.sub.10], [PM.sub.2.5], and [PM.sub.2.5-10] Concentrations in Santiago, Chile, from 1989 to 2001; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2005, 55, 342-351.

19. Chaloulakou, A.; Kassomenos, P.; Spyrellis, N.; Demokritou, P.; Koutrakis, P. Measurements of [PM.sub.10] and [PM.sub.2.5] Particle Concentrations in Athens, Greece; Atmos. Environ. 2003, 37, 649-660.

20. Kavouras, I.G.; Koutrakis, P.; Cereceda-Balic, F.; Oyola, P. Source Apportionment of [PM.sub.10] and [PM.sub.2.5] in Five Chilean Cities Using Factor Analysis; J. Air & Waste Manage. Assoc. 2001, 51, 451-464.

21. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Air Quality Criteria for Particulate Matter, Vols. 1, 2 and 3. EPA 600/P-99/002aF-bF; U.S. Government Printing Office: Washington, DC, 2004.

22. Querol, X.; Alastuey, A.; Ruiz, C.R.; Artinano, B.; Hansson, H.C.; Harrison, R.M.; Buringh, E.; Ten Brink, H.M.; Lutz, M.; Bruckmann, P.; Straehl, P.; Schneider, J. Speciation and Origin of [PM.sub.10] and [PM.sub.2.5] in Selected European Cities; Atmos. Environ. 2004, 38, 6547-6555.

23. Young, T.M.; Heeraman, D.A.; Sirin, G.; Ashbaugh, L.L. Resuspension of Soil as a Source of Airborne Lead near Industrial Facilities and Highways; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2002, 36, 2484-2490.

24. Wahlin, P.; Berkowicz, R.; Palmgren, F. Characterisation of Traffic-Generated Particulate Matter in Copenhagen; Atmos. Environ. 2006, 40, 2151-2159.

25. Lough, G.C.; Schauer, J.J.; Park, J.S.; Shafer, M.M.; Deminter, J.T.; Weinstein, J.P. Emissions of Metals Associated with Motor Vehicle Roadways; Environ. Sci. Technol. 2005, 39, 826-836.

26. Rutllant, J.; Garreaud, R. Meteorological Air-Pollution Potential for Santiago, Chile-Towards an Objective Episode Forecasting; Environ. Monit. Assess. 1995, 34, 223-244.

About the Authors

Sonja Sax is an associate at Gradient Corporation. Petros Koutrakis is a professor of environmental sciences in the Department of Environmental Health at the Harvard School of Public Health. He is also the director of the Exposure, Epidemiology and Risk Program and the director of U.S. Environmental Protection Agency/Harvard University Center for Ambient Particle Health Effects. Pablo A. Ruiz Rudolph is a research associate at the Mario Molina Center Chile and a research fellow at Harvard School of Public Health. Francisco Cereceda is professor in the Department of Chemistry at the Federico Santa Maria Technical University. Ernesto Gramsch is associate professor in the Department of Physics at the University of Santiago. Pedro Oyola is director at the Mario Molina Center Chile, he is also a visiting professor at the University of Sao Paulo, Brazil, in the Faculty of Public Health and a researcher at the Federico Santa Maria Technical University. Please address correspondence to: Pablo A. Ruiz Rudolph, Centro Mario Molina Chile, Avenida del Valle 662, Office 202, Huechuraba, Santiago, Chile; phone: +56-2-247-9650; fax: +56-2-247-9944; e-mail: pruiz@hsph.harvard.edu.

Sonja N. Sax

Gradient Corporation, Cambridge, MA

Petros Koutrakis

Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA

Pablo A. Ruiz Rudolph

Centro Mario Molina Chile, Santiago, Chile; and Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA

Francisco Cereceda-Balic

Department of Chemistry, Federico Santa Maria Technical University, Valparaiso, Chile

Ernesto Gramsch

Department of Physics, University of Santiago, Santiago, Chile

Pedro Oyola

Centro Mario Molina Chile, Santiago, Chile

RELATED ARTICLE: IMPLICATIONS

This paper reports particle composition measurements taken in Santiago from 1998 to 2003. Although [PM.sub.2.5] concentrations did not decrease substantially in the 5-yr period of the study, there were large decreases in Pb, Br, and S as a result of the phaseout of leaded gasoline and the introduction of low sulfur fuels. These results show that the pollution reduction programs implemented by the environmental authority have been successful. However, particle mass levels continue to exceed national and international standards, thus, efforts to reduce air pollution should continue.