Followership: the theoretical foundation of a contemporary construct.

To reduce the complexity of leadership contingency theory, Zierdan (1980) proposed that the contingency model should focus on subordinates rather than a manager. In his model, a manager established performance and emotional objectives for his subordinates as well as ways to measure the objectives. The manager in this model needed to be aware of subordinates' attitudes and feelings and use that information to make informed decisions in the contingency framework. Tjosvold, Andrews, and Jones (1983) conducted an empirical study about causal links between leaders and subordinates, focusing on leaders' cooperative and competitive behaviors. The study suggested that to improve their own success, to improve subordinates' reactions to their leadership, to increase subordinates' satisfaction, and to build morale leaders should emphasize common goals held by leader and subordinates, help subordinates achieve their goals, encourage subordinate learning and development, exchange information and resources, and share the rewards of their combined efforts.

Theoretical Antecedents to Active Followership

The theorists and researchers described above were influenced by theorists in other disciplines. Recognition of followers and development of active followership literature had its roots in social exchange, attribution, and small group theories that grew out of the disciplines of sociology and psychology. The theories and observations found therein were eventually woven into the fabric of organizational behavior and followership literature.

Social exchange theories. Exchange theories posited that social interaction was a form of exchange in which a group member contributed to the group at a cost to himself or herself and received benefits from the group at a cost to the group. The exchange continued as long as members found it mutually beneficial (Bass, 1990). Homans's (1950, 1974) work was among the foundation blocks of the theory. His work was followed by that of Hollander (1974) and Hollander and Julian (1969), who noted that "an entire interpersonal system" (Hollander & Julian, 1969, p. 393) must be included in the evaluation of a leader's effectiveness. They developed theories about the implicit nature of the social exchange processes and applied them to leaders and followers. In their view of the leader--follower transaction, leaders provided benefits such as direction, and followers responded with increased esteem for and responsiveness to the leader. Recognition of this transaction led to transactional theories of leadership, which generally focused on a follower's perceptions and expectations of a leader.

Transactional leadership was named and popularized by historian Bums (1978). In this leaders