The influence of Communism on career development and education in Romania.

Contemporary career counseling theories are based on a number of implicit assumptions: There is free choice and a large range of occupational choices; occupational success is largely attributable to individual merit; individual assessment, exploration of personality traits, and career dreams bring one closer to making them happen; and work plays a central role in people's lives. Personality characteristics and individual preferences play less of a role in career orientation than does conformity to the expectations initially outlined by parents and reinforced by the societal Communist principles. Emphasis is placed very early in the adolescent years on education choices linked to specific career needs of the government. Counselors trained in the Western models of career development theories need to be aware of the limitations in the application of contemporary career orientation models for individuals whose career paths were shaped within a Communist culture. Counselors need to be sensitive to the fact that, with these clients, career history may simply be a fortuitous path, not a product of careful planning or a reflection of personality. Therefore, it is essential to reality test inferences and assumptions when taking a career history, especially when the historical or cultural context in which the career choice took place had a restricted range of options.

Contemporary theories, developed in the Western cultures, are strongly linked to Western values. These theories hold an emic (insider) perspective, although it is often assumed these theories are etic (generalizable). As career counselors focus on self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and personal goals, these constructs provide an awareness of variables that are less culture dependent.

Future counseling strategies with clients who did not live in the Western world during their early developmental years will benefit from longitudinal research that follows the career journey of individuals who make their career transition into the world of work in this new culture. Longitudinal research will provide interesting data about the tools that facilitate a successful transition for these cross-cultural clients.

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Lona Whitmarsh and Ruxandra Ritter, Department of Psychology, Fairleigh Dickinson University. Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Lona Whitmarsh, Department of Psychology, M-AB2-01, Fairleigh Dickinson University, 285 Madison Avenue, Madison, NJ 07940 (e-mail: whit@fdu.edu).