Cobb, T. (1999a). Breadth and depth of vocabulary acquisition with
hands-on concordancing. Computer Assisted Language Learning 12, 345-360.
Cobb, T. (1999b). Applying constructivism: A test for the
learner-as-scientist. Educational Technology Research & Development
47(3), 15-33.
Cobb, T. (2003). Analyzing late interlanguage with learner corpora:
Quebec replications of three European studies. Canadian Modern Language
Review, 59(3), 393-423.
Cobb, T. (2006). Internet and literacy in the developing world:
Delivering the teacher with the text. Educational Technology Research
& Development 54(6), 627-645.
Cobb, T. (In press.) Necessary or nice? The role of computers in L2
reading. In Z. Han & N. Anderson (Eds.), Learning to Read &
Reading to Learn (tentative title), for TESOL.
Cobb, T., Greaves, C., & Horst, M. (2001). Can the rate of
lexical acquisition from reading be increased? An experiment in reading
French with a suite of on-line resources. In P. Raymond & C.
Cornaire (Eds.), Regards sur la didactique des langues secondes (pp.
133-153). Montreal: Editions logique.
Cobb, T., & Stevens, V. (1996) A principled consideration of
computers and reading in a second language. In M. Pennington (Ed.), The
power of CALL (pp. 115-136). Houston: Athelstan.
Coxhead, A. (2000). A new academic word list. TESOL Quarterly 34,
213-238.
Elley, W. (1991). Acquiring literacy in a second language: The
effect of book-based programs. Language Learning 41(3), 375-411.
Gardner, D. (2004) Vocabulary input through extensive reading: A
comparison of words found in children's narrative and expository
reading materials. Applied Linguistics 25(1), 1-37.
Gaskell, D., & Cobb, T. (2004). Can learners use concordance
feedback for writing errors? System 32(3), 301-319.
Goulden, R., Nation, P., & Read, J. (1990). How large can a
receptive vocabulary be? Applied Linguistics 11(4), 341-358.
Grabe, W. (1991). Current developments in second language reading
research. TESOL Quarterly 25, 375-406.
Heatley, A. & Nation, P. (1994). Range. Victoria University of
Wellington, NZ. [Computer program, available at
http://www.vuw.ac.nz/lals/.]
Hill, D. (1997). Setting Up An Extensive Reading Programme:
Practical Tips. The Language Teacher Online. Retrieved September 21,
2007, from http://www.jalt-publications.org/tlt/files/97/may/hill.html.
Hirsch, D, & Nation, P. (1992), What vocabulary size is needed
to read unsimplified texts for pleasure? Reading in a Foreign Language,
8(2), 689-696.
Horst, M. (2000). Text encounters of the frequent kind: Learning L2
vocabulary from reading. University of Wales (UK), Swansea: Unpublished
PhD dissertation.
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Meara, P. (1998). Beyond A Clockwork
Orange: Acquiring second language vocabulary through reading. Reading in
a Foreign Language, 11(2), 207-223.
Horst, M., Cobb, T., & Nicolae, I. (2005). Expanding academic
vocabulary with a collaborative on-line database. Language Learning
& Technology, 9(2), 90-110.
Horst, M., & Meara, P. (1999). Test of a model for predicting
second language lexical growth through reading. Canadian Modern Language
Review, 56(2), 308-328.
Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading:
Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language
Journal, 73, 440-464.
Krashen, S. (2003). Explorations in language acquisition and use:
The Taipei lectures. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
Kucera, H., & Francis, W. (1979). A Standard Corpus of
Present-Day Edited American English, for use with Digital Computers
(Revised and amplified from 1967 version). Providence, RI: Brown
University Press.
Laufer, B. (1989). What percentage of text-lexis is essential for
comprehension? In C. Lauren & M. Nordman (Eds.), Special language:
From humans thinking to thinking machines (pp. 316-323). Clevedon, UK:
Multilingual Matters.
Leech, G., Rayson, P., & Wilson, A. (2001). Word frequencies in
written and spoken English. London: Longman.
Liu Na & Nation, P. (1985). Factors affecting guessing
vocabulary in context. RELC Journal 16(1), 33-42.
London, J. (1903) Call of the Wild. Serialized in The Saturday
Evening Post, June 20-July 18.
London, J. (1906) White Fang. Serialized in The Outing Magazine,
May-Oct.
Mezynski, K. (1983). Issues concerning the acquisition of
knowledge: Effects of vocabulary training on reading comprehension.
Review of Educational Research, 53, 253-279.
Mondria, J-A., & Wit-De Boer, M. (1991). Guessability and the
retention of words in a foreign language. Applied Linguistics, 12(3),
249-263.
Mondria, J-A. & Wit-De Boer, M. (1993). Efficiently memorizing
words with the help of word cards and 'hand computer': Theory
and applications. System 22, 47-57.
Nagy, W. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading
comprehension. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Nation, P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nation, P. (2006). How large a vocabulary is needed for reading and
listening? In M. Horst & T. Cobb (Eds.), Second special vocabulary
edition of Canadian Modern Language Review, 63(1), 1-12 .
Nation, P., & Wang, K. (1999). Graded readers and vocabulary.
Reading in a Foreign Language, 12(2). Retrieved January 30, 2007, from
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/PastIssues/rfl122nation.pdf.
Oxford University Computing Services. (1995). The British National
Corpus. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Paribakht, T.S., & Wesche, M. (1997). Vocabulary enhancement
activities and reading for meaning in second language vocabulary
acquisition. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.). Second language
vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Penguin Readers. London: Longman. Information from
http://www.penguinreaders.com/.
Read. J. (2000). Assessing vocabulary. London: Cambridge University
Press.
Redman, S., & Ellis, R. (1991). A way with words: Vocabulary
development activities for learners of English, Books 1, 2, 3.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Simpson, R., Briggs, S., Ovens, J., & Swales, J. M. (2003). The
Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English. Ann Arbor, MI: The Regents
of the University of Michigan. Retrieved February 07, 2007, from
http://www.hti.umich.edu/m/micase/
Schmitt, N., & Carter, R. (2000). The lexical advantages of
narrow reading for second language learners. TESOL Quarterly 9(1), 4-9.
Schmitt, N., & Schmitt, D. (2004). Focus on academic
vocabulary: Word study from the Academic Word List. New York: Longman.
Schmitt, N., & Zimmerman, C. (2002). Derivative word forms:
What do learners know? TESOL Quarterly 36(2), 145-171.
Stanovich, K.E., & Cunningham, A.E. (1992). Studying the
consequences of literacy within a literate society: The cognitive
correlates of print exposure. Memory & Cognition, 20, 51-68.
Sternberg, R.J. (1987). Most vocabulary is learned from context. In
M.G. McKeown & M.E. Curtis (Eds.), The nature of vocabulary
acquisition. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Venezky, R. (1982). The origins of the present-day chasm between
adult literacy needs and school literacy instruction. Visible Language
16(2), 113-136. Reprinted (2000) in Scientific Studies of Reading, 4(1),
19-39.
Waring, R., & Takaki, M. (2003). At what rate do learners learn
and retain new vocabulary from reading a graded reader? Reading in a
Foreign Language, 15(2). Retrieved January 30, 2007, from
http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/October2003/Waring/waring.html
Waring, R., & Nation, P. (2004). Second language reading and
incidental vocabulary learning. Angles on the English Speaking World, 4,
11-23.
Wesche, M., & Paribakht, S. (1996), Assessing vocabulary
knowledge: Depth vs. breadth. Canadian Modern Language Review, 53(1),
13-40.
Zahar, R., Cobb, T., & Spada, N. (2001). Acquiring vocabulary
through reading: Effects of frequency and contextual richness. Canadian
Modern Language Review, 57(4), 541-572.
Tom Cobb
Universite du Quebec a Montreal
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Tom Cobb has designed, taught, and coordinated almost every type of
English reading and writing course possible in a career spanning 20
years and five continents. He was convinced quite early that whatever
the target skill, there would never be enough time for language learners
to get very far with it, but that well instructed computers could
radically increase the effectiveness of the time available. He now
consults in language program development internationally, supplies
learning and research tools to the profession through his website, The
Compleat Lexical Tutor (http://www.lextutor.ca), and helps young
Montreal ESL teachers get the most out of computers in their classrooms.
Email: cobb.tom@uqam.ca
Table 1. Decreasing Likelihood of Meeting Words in Grouped Sub-Corpora
1000 level
Word Press Aca- Fic-
family demic tion
lead' 200 64 45
point' 106 194 61
bus 15 1 1
associat' 66 49 4
press' 66 100 38
creat' 61 51 21
real' 153 86 172
other' 383 355 273
special' 90 52 20
final' 62 66 57
MEAN (SD) 120.20 101.80 69.20
(106.17) (101.97) (86.61)
Words/10 10 9 8
with 6+
COPYRIGHT 2007 University of Hawaii, National
Foreign Language Resource Center Reproduced with permission of the copyright holder. Further reproduction or distribution is prohibited without permission.
Copyright 2007, Gale Group. All rights
reserved. Gale Group is a Thomson Corporation Company.
NOTE: All illustrations and photos have been removed from this article.