Practice and research in career counseling and development--2006.

The boundaryless career is not a new concept. This term was first introduced by Arthur and Rousseau (1996) with six different meanings. The common factor for the different meanings was that the boundary-less career is "one of independence from, rather than dependence on, traditional organizational career arrangement" (p. 6). Sullivan and Arthur discussed the evolution of the concept and suggested five propositions for future research. Two propositions were related to competencies in nontraditional or modern/postmodern world. They believed that individuals with greater career competencies were more likely to have experienced more psychological and physical mobility and also to have had more opportunities. By enhancing career competencies, individuals are more likely to increase their opportunities for psychological or physical mobility. One proposition related to gender was that men are more likely to have greater opportunities for physical mobility but women are more likely to have greater opportunities for psychological mobility. Cultural issues were also considered, and one proposition was proposed: People in individualistic cultures are more likely to change work groups or organizations, and people in collectivist cultures, in contrast, are more likely to stay in their work groups or organizations. The last proposition is related to individual differences. People with individual orientation are more likely to recognize opportunities for and exhibit physical mobility compared with individuals with collectivist orientation. In conclusion, the concept of mobility seems to be both physically and psychologically important in understanding complex modern careers.

Career Theory and Concepts: Summary and Conclusion

Many studies were conducted that used as their foundation the constructs of Lent et al.'s (1994) SCCT. The SCCT model was supported by a variety of groups with career or education-related choice behavior. In addition to the social-cognitive variables, such as career barriers and coping efficacy, it seems that interests and values, which are highly related to outcome expectations, will be an important mediator in the relationship between self-efficacy, career choice behavior, and performance. Studies that are based on this model using samples from specific populations of interest will have the greatest probability of supporting the SCCT model. Its appropriateness across different ethnic or national groups, however, needs further examination. Research agendas based on the whole SCCT model will be encouraged. In addition to the traditional theories, research studies on the newly developed concepts associated with positive psychology, narrative approach of career counseling, and positive perspectives of family-work roles interactions are encouraged.

Career Interventions and Practice

Most research studies related to career interventions were outcome oriented rather than process oriented. Some studies tested the effectiveness of career programs based on certain traditional theories or concepts (e.g., career self-efficacy and value clarification). Others tested programs not closely related to certain theories or concepts but contained important components associated with career intervention (e.g., resume writing and career information exploration) and practice. The review of intervention and practice articles is organized into the general categories of (a) ideology for career counseling practice; (b) career counseling techniques and strategies for adolescents, college students, and special populations; (c) career information; (d) computerized career programs/network; and (e) career assessment.

Ideology for Career Counseling Practice

Social context embedded career practice. In an article titled "Career Interventions in Changing Contexts," Norman discussed challenges currently faced by counselors. He claimed that within this changed social and economic context, counselors are being asked to view their role from different perspectives. The importance of lifelong guidance was recognized and so was the need to view guidance from a broader social context with greater emphasis on social responsibility and ethics. Norman indicated that new forms of delivery were also emerging. These forms included an emphasis on client-centered and holistic counseling, an affirmation of narrative methods, and a more dynamic counseling approach. Recently, several new methods of service delivery have been developed. Some examples are one-stop counseling centers, virtual counseling services, mentoring, career coaching, and the inclusion of social enterprises as part of the counseling process. In training career counselors, there is a need to notice the implementation of these changes.

Application of metaphor. Metaphors have been used as instruments for individuals throughout their career exploration. Amundson used the story The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Baum, 1900) as a metaphor for career counseling exploration issues related to self-deception, loss, and the search for the "all-knowing" expert. Through this discussion, adolescents can gain insight into their own myths about the process of career exploration. This metaphor could also be applied in counselor training and in discussions of cross-cultural issues.

Multicultural interventions. A workshop for multicultural student success was developed and assessed by Ulloa and Herrera. The workshop was developed primarily to facilitate the mentoring relationship between minority undergraduate and minority graduate students. Components of the workshop included a motivational poem written by a graduate student, a panel discussion, and a presentation about locating resources for graduate study and application fees. The topics for the panel discussion included "The Role of Mentoring Toward Academic Success," "The Role of Active Involvement," and "The Application Process." Feedback from students regarding the workshop was found to be "overwhelmingly positive." Students reported that the workshop informed them about different strategies regarding the application process and numerous resources for application. The students also reported that they appreciated the opportunities the workshop provided to interact with graduate students on a more personal basis.

P-word in career guidance services. The p-word, which means productivity in career guidance services, was defined as the output of a unit of production in a given period (Grant, 2000). Productivity is closely related conceptually to cost effectiveness." Watts and Dent indicated that more attention to productivity in career guidance delivery was related to the pressures for both greater public accountability and increasing access to services without massive increases in resources. They also examined possible strategies for enhancing productivity by embedding career education in the curriculum, through group guidance activities and through self-help techniques, including Web-based services; by encouraging community members to deliver parts of programs; and by making use of support staff to work with more qualified staff in delivering services. A further potential strategy for enhancing productivity was through the use of information and communication technologies. A case study was presented to delineate how services might collect and utilize productivity data to enhance their service provision. Although individual counseling is the most effective intervention, providing the greatest gain in the shortest amount of time, other interventions are needed to provide higher levels of productivity if the aim is to provide the greatest gain for the greatest number of clients.

E-working. Counseling services for telecommuters (termed e-workers) was thought to be important in the culture of the boundaryless career. Kirk and Belovics defined e-worker, summarized the growth of e-worker programs, outlined benefits and drawbacks to e-working, and discussed critical elements of e-worker programs. They predicted that there will be more telecommuters working in the global society, and, therefore, it is important for counselors-in-training to familiarize themselves with this trend and have the ability to provide necessary services for this growing field of workers.

Career Services for Individuals in Different Stages

Adolescents. Young et al. examined 19 parent-adolescent dyads for their joint actions related to the adolescents' future. Each dyad's project was followed for 6 months. Analysis of the data using the action-project method revealed three groups of projects: projects that were wholly concerned with the parent-adolescent relationship, projects that shifted from career development goals and actions to explicit relationship goals and actions, and projects in which parent-adolescent communication was used as a means to facilitate career and other developmental goals. Their study demonstrated a shift from a traditional understanding of parent-adolescent relationship variables as influencing career development to an understanding of the intentions and agency that are constructed through relationships.

Jackson, Kacanski, et al. designed a workshop, using the SCCT construct, for inner-city minority youth . The results revealed that, after the workshop, more contextual supports than personal resources were endorsed by participants. This finding highlights the importance of expanding young adolescents' learning experiences regarding accessible sources of support for attaining their career goals.