Practice and research in career counseling and development--2006.

Flores, Navarro, Smith, and Ploszaj tested the SCCT model by using a sample of 302 Mexican American male adolescents. Results indicated that these adolescents' nontraditional career self-efficacy was predicted by acculturation level and parental support. Nontraditional career self-efficacy could predict nontraditional career interests. In addition, nontraditional career choice was predicted by nontraditional career interest and father's nontraditional career choice. For a similar sample, Flores, Ojeda, Huang, Gee, and Lee tested the relationship between acculturation, problem-solving appraisal, career decision-making self-efficacy, and Mexican American high school students' educational goals. Results indicated that Anglo-oriented acculturation and career decision-making self-efficacy were the two most important predictors for these students' educational goals.

For Latino high school students, Gushue tested the relationship of ethnic identity career decision-making self-efficacy and outcome expectations. He proposed three path models, and the results supported each of the models. The first model indicated significant direct paths, from ethnic identity to self-efficacy and from self-efficacy to career outcome expectations. The second model, modified from the first model, also indicated direct paths between ethnic identity and self-efficacy and between self-efficacy and outcome expectations. According to this model, the indirect effect of ethnic identity on outcome expectation mediated by self-efficacy was significant. In the third model, the authors reversed the path directions among those variables, and the results suggested that a high level of self-efficacy would contribute to ethnic identity. In addition, a strong ethnic identity would influence career expectations. Findings of the study suggested that ethnic identification might function as a kind of support for the career development of Latino Americans. For this population, ethnic identity may influence their self-efficacy and subsequently their career outcome expectations.

A test of social cognitive variables related to other variables was also conducted with college students in specific majors. Brown, Garavalia, Fritts, and Olson examined the influences of sex role orientation, academic achievement, and social cognitive factors on individuals' career decision-making self-efficacy when the major was computer science. Results indicated that androgynous and feminine-oriented students scored significantly higher on career decision-making self-efficacy as compared with undifferentiated students. No statistically significant difference was found, however, between sex role orientation and academic achievement and career locus of control.

Rottinghaus, Gaffey, Borgen, and Ralston examined the roles of interest and self-efficacy in explaining the career intentions or occupational goals of graduating psychology majors. Participants consisted of 254 psychology majors who endorsed seven different career goals (i.e., psychology research, psychology practice, education, business, law, medicine, and military/law enforcement). Results indicated overall group differences in Holland themes. No clear pattern could be found between career interest and career intentions. Group differences in the general confidence theme were also significant. Rottinghaus et al. argued that variability existed among groups that were organized by their intended career pathways. Results indicated that training in psychology may prepare students to enter a wide variety of occupations and specialty areas within the field. In addition, Fouad and Guillen argued that the construct outcome expectations has received relatively little attention in the vocational literature. They tried to define outcome expectations operationally and proposed recommendations for future research regarding this construct.

Decision-making self-efficacy. The concept of career decision-making self-efficacy and related variables such as perceived barriers and coping beliefs were examined across different ethnic groups. F. G. Lopez and Ann-Yi examined the predictors of career indecision in African American, Hispanic, and White women. They found that African American women perceived greater barriers than did White and Hispanic women. No statistically significant difference was found, however, between ethnic groups regarding educational barriers, coping beliefs, and career decision-making self-efficacy. Thompson and Subich investigated the relation of social status to career decision-making self-efficacy. They incorporated a new multidimensional measure of social status in the examination of decision-making self-efficacy, and the results indicated a significant relationship. In this study, students with greater economic resources, social power, and social prestige reported greater confidence in their ability to complete career decision-making tasks.

For Latino/a high school students, Gushue, Clarke, Pantzer, and Scanlan explored the potential relationship between self-efficacy, perceptions of barriers, vocational identity, and the students' exploration behavior. Results indicated that higher levels of career decision-making self-efficacy were related to both a more differentiated vocational identity and a greater engagement with career exploration tasks. Perceptions of career barriers were significantly related to vocational identity but not to exploration activities. Gushue, Clark, et al. concluded that although the entire SCCT model was not tested in their study, their results supported the model's assumption that social cognitive variables would be relevant for Latino populations.

Role models. Quimby and DeSantis examined self-efficacy and role model influence as predictors of career choice across Holland's six interest types. Participants were 368 female college students ranging in age from 18 to 25 years. Results of regression analysis indicated that role model influence and self-efficacy accounted for significant variance in career choice in all six RIASEC types. In addition, the direct path from role model to career choice was valid for all types except the Investigative type. The relationships between supports, barriers, role models, self-efficacy, and choice behavior were partially supported. These variables need to be more closely examined for a revision of the SCCT model.

Career barriers and coping efficacy. A positive link between barrier perceptions and barrier-related coping beliefs could be a crucial factor in promoting decision-making confidence and, therefore, in reducing career indecision. For inner-city minority youth, Jackson, Kacanski, Rust, and Beck examined career barrier beliefs and perceived supports for attending further education. Results indicated that higher levels of school and work barrier beliefs were associated with lower aspirations. With regard to types of perceived support, personal (psychological assets) as well as contextual (family and community resources accessible in their environment) resources were found to be two major types of coping resources for this population.

Career Decision-Making Difficulties

Gati, Krausz, and Osipow (1996) proposed a taxonomy for career decision-making difficulties, which they examined in different cultures. Creed and Yin tested the applicability of the 34-item Career Decision-Making Difficulty Questionnaire (CDDQ; Gati & Saka, 2001) for use with adolescents in China. The revised Chinese version of the scale was administered to a sample of 514 Chinese adolescents. Results identified two stable factors for the CDDQ, specifically Lack of Information and Inconsistent Information. The test failed to confirm the third CDDQ factor of Readiness to make a career decision. Also in China, Rui and Li-Rong developed a cross-culture revision of the CDDQ for undergraduates. They tested the structure of the CDDQ with a sample of 330 college students, and the results indicated that the psychometric properties of the inventory were acceptable and, thus, can be used for measurement of undergraduates' career decision-making difficulties.

Variables related to career decision-making difficulties were also examined in a variety of studies. Amir and Gati, for example, investigated the relationship between measured and expressed career decision-making difficulties with variables such as career self-efficacy, aptitude, and decision-making style. The sample consisted of 299 young adults who intended to apply to college or university in Israel. They found that the relationship between measured career decision-making difficulties, as measured by the CDDQ, and expressed difficulties were generally high. Both measured and expressed difficulties correlated negatively with the students' career decision-making self-efficacy. The students' scholastic aptitude test scores were negatively correlated with both measured and expressed difficulties. Participants with more crystallized career plans reported lower career decision-making difficulties, higher career decision-making self-efficacy, and a higher "thinking" (vs. "feeling") vocational decision-making style.

In China, Liu, Hao, and Li examined the relationship between career decision-making difficulties and self-efficacy in 185 undergraduates. Results indicated that the level of career decision-making difficulty was not as high as the authors had expected. However, the score on career decision-making self-efficacy was relatively high. Individuals with different levels of career self-efficacy were found to have different types of difficulties during different phases of career decision making.

Career Indecisiveness