A social cognitive theory approach to the effects of mediated intergroup contact on intergroup attitudes.

This study found fewer effects of Real World: Austin than Will & Grace. Real World features an ensemble cast that changes each season; hence, the per-episode exposure to the Black-White dyad on this show is relatively low, and the dyad only exists for a single season. The show also features less positive interaction than Will & Grace, a show in which the lead characters have a long-term intimate friendship. (5) Real World is also a reality show; it is possible that reality television does not incur identification with the characters to the same extent as fictional programs do, and hence that viewing intergroup relationships on reality shows will not conform to hypotheses premised on identification processes. Finally, portrayals of Blacks in the media are substantially more equivocal and common than portrayals of gay people. A single portrayal of an interracial relationship may be less influential than a portrayal of gay-straight relationship, simply due to the larger number of Blacks on television and the fact that a fairly wide array of clearly negative portrayals of interracial contact are apparent on TV (e.g., Mastro & Behm-Morawitz, 2005).

The authors acknowledge that the explanations above constitute somewhat piecemeal accounting for a set of results that is only partially supportive of the hypotheses. Together, however, they suggest a developing (if tentative) list of boundary conditions for the hypothesized effects. It is suspected that these hypotheses are most likely to be supported by media portrayals of deep, long-lasting intergroup relationships that receive maximal screen time. Television may, therefore, be more effective than one-time exposures from movies. The hypotheses may also be more relevant to intergroup contexts in which the outgroup is relatively infrequently portrayed in the media, and where attitudes are variable in the population (e.g., Asian Americans, fat people). Fictional portrayals may well have more impact than other portrayals. Of course, research is needed to substantiate the relevance of these boundary conditions.

Theoretical Considerations

As outlined in the introduction, previous work on contact, including mediated contact, has presented a variety of potential "mechanisms" for how these effects occur. The most common explanations focus on how contact provides information about diversity in the outgroup (Soliz & Harwood, 2003), increased knowledge concerning the outgroup (Schiappa et al., 2005), reduced anxiety and increased intimacy in dealing with outgroup members (Paolini et al., 2004), a "recategorization" of outgroup members into a new more inclusive ingroup (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000), and exposure to counter-stereotypical (stereotype-disconfirming) outgroup members (Cook, 1978). The present approach, which is geared toward mediated contact, takes a somewhat different tack, focusing instead on ingroup identification and awareness, the modeling of appropriate intergroup behaviors, and the symbolic extrapolation from positive intergroup behavior to more general attitudes. Thus, from a social cognitive theory perspective, an association between exposure to positive intergroup interaction and intergroup attitudes has been shown. Similarly, preliminary indications of a link between identification with an ingroup member involved in intergroup contact and positive intergroup attitudes emerge from this research.

Of course, some of the results could be explained by other theories. Heider's (1958) balance theory, for instance, stipulates that individuals are motivated to maintain balance between their cognitions. If imbalance exists, a change will occur in one of the cognitions to achieve balance. Thus, if a viewer likes Grace, disliking Will creates imbalance because Grace likes Will. Balance is regained by developing a stronger affinity for Will. The extended contact effect (Wright et al., 1997) could also explain the results. According to the hypothesis, knowledge of an intergroup friendship involving an ingroup member is enough to lead to positive attitude change. Wright et al. demonstrate the effect, and note a variety of possible theoretical explanations (including mention of balance theory). They also suggest that an inclusion of other in the self effect may be occurring, which resembles closely the identification explanation. The extended contact effect is, therefore, consistent with these findings and the social cognitive theory explanation.

Notwithstanding the limitations of this study, the current work offers promise for reducing prejudice and enhancing tolerance. As noted earlier, intergroup contact is often anxiety laden, and in face-to-face contexts anxiety is exacerbated by high levels of group salience and perceived typicality--when outgroup members are seen as representative of their group, anxiety increases. However, typicality and salience are essential for generalization from specific contact situations to broader attitudes. This has presented an unpleasant conundrum: Encounters most likely to influence general attitudes are also those most likely to be imbued with anxiety. The media provide models for positive interaction that are viewed in an anxiety-free atmosphere. Unlike in face-to-face contexts, outgroup TV characters who are typical of their group need not be viewed with any more anxiety than other outgroup characters; similarly, in the scripted environment it is possible for encounters high in group salience to retain a positive tone. Will & Grace provides an example of an intimate, caring, and nuanced relationship between two characters that nonetheless retains Will's sexuality as a salient element. This is the perfect recipe for positive attitude change, and one that is challenging to achieve in face-to-face contact. Also, whereas other perspectives have focused on changing orientations to outgroup members, the present study emphasizes the ingroup member's role in the intergroup interaction. Intuition and theory suggest that it is easier to develop a positive orientation to an ingroup member than an outgroup member, and this work suggests that this may be productive (e.g., enhancing identification with the ingroup member has positive results for attitudes towards the outgroup). Thus, this approach offers some partial, yet novel routes to improving intergroup attitudes. These routes capitalize on the integration of observational learning and exposure to intergroup contact in the media context. More broadly, it is hoped that the current authors add to the momentum of work examining mass communication from an intergroup perspective (Harwood & Roy, 2005; Mastro, 2003): As central forces shaping culture, the media deserve attention for their role in influencing relations between social groups.

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