A grounded theory of high-quality leadership programs: perspectives from student leadership development programs in higher educa

Drawing on the experiences and perspectives of multiple stakeholders closely associated with diverse types of successful student leadership programs, the purpose of this study was to identify the attributes of leadership programs--including the specific actions associated with these attributes--that contribute significantly to undergraduate student leadership development. A total of 62 interviews was conducted with individuals across the four programs in the sample. The researcher employed the constant comparative method to construct a grounded theory model. The theory of high-quality leadership programs developed in this study is grounded in those programmatic attributes that, when enacted, contribute significantly to enhancing student learning and leadership development. The data analysis revealed 16 attributes of high-quality leadership programs organized into three clusters: (a) participants engaged in building and sustaining a learning community; (b) student-centered experiential learning experiences; and (c) research-grounded continuous program development.

Keywords: leadership program; program development; program innovation; leadership development; student learning; curriculum; higher education; college; university; grounded theory; program model; teaching leadership; qualitative research; learning outcomes; assessment

**********

Many prominent leadership scholars (Burns, 1978; Gardner, 1990; Greenleaf, 1977; Wren, 1995) argue that our nation is in a "leadership crisis," one that requires more and better leadership in all areas of our society. Within the field of higher education, Astin, Astin, and associates (2000) declare that it is difficult to overstate the importance of the role that higher education plays in shaping the quality of leadership in modern American society. Leadership development is undoubtedly an important outcome of an undergraduate education. University mission statements reflect the value placed on educating citizens who can engage successfully in the leadership process and contribute to the growth of our society (Council for the Advancement of Standards, 2003; Cress, Astin, Zimmerman-Oster, & Burkhardt, 2001; Roberts, 2003).

Teaching leadership to students through programs is a recent trend in higher education as both co-curricular and academic leadership development programs have proliferated on many college campuses (Riggio, Ciulla, & Sorenson, 2003; Schwartz, Axtman, & Freeman, 1998). Notably, there has been little empirical research on student leadership program quality and program activities that contribute significantly to leadership development and learning.

Definitional differences aside, books used to teach leadership to college students (Higher Education Research Institute, 1996; Hughes, Ginnett, & Curphy, 2001; Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 2006; Kouzes & Posner, 2002; Northouse, 2001; Wren, 1995) conceptualize leadership in common terms as a process in which all individuals have the capability of developing and engaging in whether they hold a formal position or not. In the postindustrial leadership paradigm (Rost, 1993; Rost & Barker, 2000), leadership can be developed in students and in organizations. As opposed to older notions of leadership as positional or as an inherent characteristic, all students who involve themselves in leadership education have the potential to increase their skills and knowledge (Higher Education Research Institute, 1996; Komives et al., 2006; Wren, 1995). Leadership in the Making, a Kellogg Foundation project that studied 31 Kellogg-funded leadership development endeavors, concluded that leadership potential exists in every student, and colleges and universities can develop this potential through leadership programs and activities (Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999).

Literature Review

Attributes Associated With High-Quality Higher Education Programs

Higher education scholars (Astin, 1993; Haworth & Conrad, 1997; Pascarella & Terenzini, 2005) recommend an examination into the "black box" of the educational experience to identify the attributes of high-quality programs rather than relying on assumptions of quality. Scholars point to research-based attributes and practices that are important for programs seeking to enhance student learning and development. Major themes of both engagement- and learning-focused teaching appear repeatedly in the literature on education quality. In their extensive study of academic programs, Haworth and Conrad (1997) found that high-quality programs that contribute to student learning and development feature attributes of diverse and engaged participants, participatory cultures, interactive teaching and learning, connected program requirements, and adequate resources.

Research from George Kuh and colleagues shows that the level of academic challenge, active and collaborative learning, student-faculty interaction, enriching educational experience, and a supportive campus environment are five cluster areas linked to desired college student learning and development outcomes (National Survey of Student Engagement [NSSE], 2004). Similar to the NSSE findings, Chickering and Gamson (1991) identified key practices of student--faculty contact, student cooperation, active learning, prompt feedback, time on task, high expectations, and respect for diverse talents and ways of learning as those that matter most for learning and development in undergraduate education. These researchers have identified multiple attributes and practices that are valuable for programs to positively affect students.

Attributes Associated With Leadership Programs

First, to bring in general leadership development intervention research, the Center for Creative Leadership (Van Velsor & McCauley, 2004) explains elements of an effective leadership development experience in general organizations (not focused on college students) including assessment, challenge, and support. Day's (2001) review of leadership development research finds that the practices of 360-degree feedback, executive coaching, mentoring, networking, job assignment, and action learning have all been lauded as beneficial for leadership development in one application or another but that little hard evaluation data support the claims.

Publications on developing college student leadership education experiences (Eich, 2003, 2005; Komives, Lucas, & McMahon, 1998) highlight the salience of service and experiential learning (Kolb, 1981) in leadership education and, especially, through group experience. Kolb's (1984) experiential learning model is a practical pedagogy for teaching students how to engage in the leadership process through constructing meaning and making connections between their own experiences and reflection.

Although the individual element effect is unknown, leadership programs in higher education offer a variety of elements or activities designed for the purpose of enhancing student leadership development and learning. Program elements used by more than 80% of Kellogg-funded programs include seminars and workshops, mentors, and guest speakers (Zimmerman-Oster & Burkhardt, 1999).

Method

Grounded Theory Research Design

Within this multicase study design, grounded theory (Conrad, 1982; Glaser & Strauss, 1967; Strauss & Corbin, 1990) was used to construct a theory or model of what it is about the leadership programs (described by attributes and actions) that contributes to significant student learning and development (see Figure 1). This method was selected because it is a qualitative way of inductively developing theory from the ground up through a systematic process.

The constant comparative method--comparing incidents applicable to each category, integrating categories and their properties, delimiting the theory, and writing the theory--is a four-stage process that was used to make meaning of the data (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). Glaser and Strauss point out that

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

This multifaceted and flexible method combines systematic data collection, coding, and analysis with theoretical sampling to generate theory that is integrated, close to the data, and expressed in a form clear enough for further testing (Conrad, 1982).

Sample

The population under investigation included undergraduate leadership programs in the United States. What represented a leadership program varied at different schools. These programs included a single leadership course, a week-long leadership retreat, a co-curricular program, and a service leadership program. Individual case studies at diverse sites were also included in this study to provide insight for a wide variety of leadership programs.

Purposeful sampling decisions were made at the onset of the study to select both case sites and participants. These decisions were made to include alternative delivery methods of leadership programs as well as multiple stakeholder perspectives at the individual programs.

Selection and Access

The leadership programs and their stakeholders included in the sample were chosen through a theoretical sampling strategy. The goal was not to scientifically identify the highest quality programs in existence but rather to create a pool of different quality leadership programs. Selection was made from this pool to begin discovering what it is about each program that is contributing most to learning and development. Criteria used to select programs include the following:

1. The program was identified as being effective in contributing significantly to student learning and leadership development. The program's own assessment and evaluation data assisted in identifying quality programs.

2. The program had at least a 5-year history of operation. This length allowed for an improvement process of the program to make it more effective, serve more students, and acquire more experience.

Print Get the Mag Weekly Updates