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Weekly UpdatesThis test of two posttraining interventions--self-coaching and upward feedback--found that both enhance the effectiveness of formal training on interpersonal skills for managers. Self-coaching in this case meant that trainee-managers filled out a workbook containing written assessments and exercises over a period of five weeks. Upward feedback involved subordinates' anonymous comments regarding how well the managers performed on specific interpersonal activities. While the test of interventions for eighty-seven restaurant manager trainees found that both interventions were useful extensions to formal classroom training, participants found that the workbooks of the self-coaching program were time-consuming, especially since the program was concentrated in five weeks. The upward feedback comments were collected three weeks after training, and the participants thought that a longer time would have been appropriate, allowing them to work with their newly learned skills. Neither of the two interventions was significantly more effective than the other; nor was a combination of the two more effective than either one by itself.
The purpose of this study was to examine the utility of using two posttraining interventions--self-coaching and upward feedback--to enhance the effectiveness of formal training on interpersonal skills for managers. Data from eighty-seven restaurant manager trainees demonstrated that both interventions were useful extensions to formal classroom training and appear to have substantial utility for helping managers develop and improve their interpersonal skills.
Keywords: posttraining interventions, interpersonal skills training, upward feedback
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Positive work relationships are critical for maintaining high levels of job satisfaction, involvement, and commitment. When employees feel good about their jobs and are motivated to do well, they are able to sustain a high-quality service environment. Thus, promoting effective interpersonal skills is one of the most fundamental priorities for all hospitality organizations.
The importance of effective interpersonal relationships is exemplified by research on the service-profit chain--an integrative strategic framework that describes how firms achieve and sustain superior performance (Heskett et al. 1994; Heskett, Sasser, and Schlesinger 1997). The service-profit chain proposes that internal service quality (e.g., rigorous human resources management practices and the way people work with each other) drives employee satisfaction, performance, and retention. In turn, these outcomes influence operational efficiency, customer satisfaction and loyalty, and profitability. Understanding these relationships helps managers focus on the drivers of firm performance, not just the outcomes of performance.
One of the primary means of promoting positive employee interactions is through formal training programs. Surveys indicate that up to half of an organization's training budget is spent on developing interpersonal skills (e.g., Training Magazine 2004). These kinds of programs focus on improving a variety of skills, such as coaching and counseling, conflict resolution, interviewing, performance management, and customer service. Unfortunately, despite significant investments in time and money, such training programs often do not always achieve desired results. One reason is that the skills are not fully developed (e.g., Georges 1996; May and Kahnweiler 2000), which may be due in part to compromises in program design and implementation (e.g., trainees are not given enough time or opportunity to practice the desired behaviors during training). Similarly, lack of follow-up, accountability, incentives, and management support may limit the extent to which individuals apply their newly acquired knowledge and skills on the job (e.g., Taylor, Russ-Eft, and Chan 2005).
Given these concerns, efforts must be taken to understand ways to optimize the effectiveness of interpersonal skills training programs. To this end, the study described here examined the impact of two posttraining interventions--self-coaching and upward feedback--as means to further develop and promote the transfer of interpersonal skills that have been addressed in a formal training program for new restaurant managers. These interventions were designed to reinforce the training content, provide performance feedback, and direct skill application and continued development when the managers returned to their jobs.
Previous Research
Most of the research on posttraining interventions to improve the impact of classroom training has focused on goal setting (e.g., Reber and Wallin 1984; Richman-Hirsh 2001; Wexley and Baldwin 1986; Wexley and Nemeroff 1975). The principal contention is that goal setting helps individuals set priorities for transferring (i.e., applying) training content. If individuals establish priorities for transfer, they may be more likely to use their skills on the job. Goal-setting interventions have been implemented either within the classroom or on the job, and they usually involve trainers' or supervisors' active and direct involvement. With respect to content, these interventions emphasize the importance of goal setting, how to establish specific and challenging goals, and how to apply these activities on the job. In general, goal-setting efforts have been found to facilitate improved posttraining performance.
Self-management training is one specific goal-setting intervention that has often been examined to see whether it promotes the transfer of skills for autonomous individuals (e.g., Burke 1997; Gaudine and Saks 2004; Noe, Sears, and Fullenkamp 1990). Proponents of self-management training assume trainees will encounter obstacles on the job, such as time pressures or a lack of social support, and relapse into previous patterns of behavior. This type of intervention is generally facilitated by the trainer within the classroom setting. It focuses on identifying obstacles to transfer and strategies for overcoming them, establishing goals for maintaining performance over time, monitoring progress toward goal attainment, and self-administering rewards and punishments. The evidence for the impact of self-management training has been mixed. Some research has demonstrated a significant improvement in posttraining performance (Tziner, Haccoun, and Kadish 1991; Noe, Sears, and Fullenkamp 1990), while other studies have not done so (Burke 1997; Gaudine and Saks 2004; Richman-Hirsh 2001; Wexley and Baldwin 1986).
Additional research on posttraining interventions is needed in several respects. It is necessary to examine other types of interventions that might have value for individuals who work autonomously, where structured guidance from others is limited or even nonexistent, such as those in managerial roles. Furthermore, for such individuals, it is useful to examine the impact of interventions embedded in the applied work environment, considering that on-the-job support is key in ensuring training success (Tracey, Tannenbaum, and Kavanagh 1995). Research is also necessary to examine interventions that not only facilitate skill transfer but also further skill development. Trainees may need cues to motivate transfer and tools to help refine their skills in a "real-world" context beyond the classroom. Thus, it is important to examine interventions that serve multiple purposes.
Self-Coaching and Upward Feedback
We examined two on-the-job posttraining interventions that were designed to enhance the effectiveness of a formal interpersonal skills training program for new restaurant managers. In particular, this training focused on developing supervisory skills. One intervention is a self-coaching program, which has not been examined in prior research. The second intervention is upward feedback. Upward feedback has typically been used and researched as a stand-alone development tool, and this research will examine its effectiveness as an extension of formal training.
Self-coaching. In the self-coaching intervention, trainees reflect on their performance and establish transfer enhancement goals for several weeks after training. This intervention consists of three components, starting with a behavioral checklist to assess the frequency of interpersonal skill use. For example, trainees reflect on how often they have established clear and specific goals for subordinates, praised performance improvements, and worked with subordinates to develop performance improvement strategies. In the second component, trainees consider specific incidents by answering open-ended questions (e.g., "Describe the most challenging employee situation you encountered this week. In what ways did you manage the situation well, and how would you handle a similar situation differently in the future?"). The final component is a goal-setting activity in which trainees establish performance maintenance and improvement goals to translate their insight into successful future performance. In sum, the self-coaching program represents a self-appraisal linked to on-the-job performance expectations that were addressed in the formal training program.
The medium for the self-coaching program was a workbook with written assessments and exercises to facilitate the self-reflective and goal-setting efforts. A workbook may be effective for several reasons (Walker 1985). First, written analysis helps individuals to distance themselves from their daily routines. Second, writing helps individuals become more aware of their strengths and areas for improvement. Third, written documentation allows individuals to monitor their progress over time. While individuals may engage in activities to facilitate performance improvement informally, a workbook provides structure for the process.
The self-coaching program is distinct from previous posttraining interventions in several ways. Compared to the majority of other goal-setting interventions, the program tested here is more autonomous. As such, the program is well suited for employees who have a great deal of latitude and control over their job responsibilities. The self-coaching program also differs from self-management training. The self-coaching program is implemented on the job, while self-management training occurs within the classroom. Accordingly, the self-coaching program could provide greater control over posttraining behavior. Furthermore, the self-coaching program is broader, with an emphasis on performance assessment, identification of strengths and weaknesses, and the development of performance improvement goals.
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