Changing food systems and implications for sustainable communities: Cyprus, Canada, and Brazil.

Abstract

Food systems worldwide have changed as a result of the increasing industrialization in agriculture, consolidation in the food chain (production, processing and distribution), and shifting diets and food cultures. This development has increased access to foods (especially imported ones) in many parts of the world. The resulting ecological, socio-economic and cultural changes, however, are not always conducive to human health or sustainable communities. This paper identifies some of those changes, as well as weaknesses and strengths in the food systems in four different areas of the world: Cyprus, Europe; Nunavut and Waterloo Region, Canada; and Feira de Santana, Brazil. These observations rely on a review of academic literature and government documents, in addition to field work and key informant interviews in all three countries. The cases reveal the emergence of a wide breadth of complex challenges, some of which are shared despite geographical or cultural differences. Along with the internationalization of food systems, has been the rapid demise of environmentally-sound small-scale agriculture, family farm enterprises, traditional food cultures and diets. This trend has had a severe impact on community welfare and on the sustainability of food systems. As discussed in this paper, many features of those traditional systems of food production, distribution and consumption are now recognized as key for the promotion of healthy, sustainable communities.

Les systemes alimentaires du monde entier se sont modifies a la suite de I'industrialisation accrue dans le domaine de I'agriculture, de la consolidation de la chaine alimentaire (production, transformation et distribution) ainsi qu'en raison d'une modification culturelle en matiere de regime alimentaire et d'aliments. Ce developpement a permis une augmentation de I'acces aux aliments (particulierement aux aliments importes) dans de nombreuses regions du monde. Toutefois, les changements ecologiques, socioeconomiques et culturels que cela a entraines ne conduisent pas toujours a la sante des humains ou a la viabilite des collectivites. Les auteurs de cet article degagent certains de ces changements ainsi que les faiblesses et les forces des systemes alimentaires dans quatre regions differentes dans le monde: Chypre, en Europe, le Nunavut et la region de Waterloo au Canada, et Feira de Santana, au Bresil. Ces observations sont fondees sur un examen de la documentation universitaire et sur des documents gouvernementaux, en plus d'observations sur le terrain et d'entrevues cles menees dans les trois pays. Les cas revelent I'emergence d'une grande etendue de defis complexes dont certains sont communs a tous malgre les differences geographiques ou culturelles. Parallelement a I'internationalisation des systemes alimentaires, on a eu droit a un effondrement rapide de I'agriculture a petite echelle plus ecologique, des petites entreprises agricoles familiales, des cultures et des regimes alimentaires traditionnels. Cette tendance a des repercussions graves sur le bien-etre des collectivites et sur la durability des systemes alimentaires. Comme presente dans cet article, de nombreuses caracteristiques des systemes traditionnels de production, de distribution et de consommation des aliments sont maintenant reconnues comme etant des elements cles de la promotion de collectivites en sante et durables.

Key words

Food systems, sustainability, agro-industry, local communities, Canada, Brazil, Cyprus

Introduction

Historically, food systems were oriented towards local markets and consumption, and were embedded in social norms and food cultures that established customs governing food production, sharing and consumption (Kneen 1995, Shiva 2000, Halweil 2004). For decades, however, such traditional systems have been gradually replaced by agro-industrial and globalized systems (Kneen 1995, Shiva 2000, Halweil 2004). This transition has been fastest in the highly-industrialized part of the world whereas poor regions generally have retained more of those traditional, customary features. Nevertheless, the shifting nature and globalization of food systems has been accompanied by widespread ecological, societal, and cultural changes (Altieri 2000, Shiva 2000, WHO and FAO 2006).

The growth of agro-industrial practices has generated increased food supplies and the globalization of food trade has allowed for consumption of goods from other parts of the world regardless of seasonality. These perceived benefits have come at a high cost, however, in terms of sustainability and community welfare. The food studies literature has thoroughly documented many of those impacts. They include the ecological damages of industrial farming, including monoculture expansion and biodiversity loss, deforestation, depletion of soil quality, high water use, and pollution from pesticide and fertilizer residues. Negative societal outcomes include the loss of traditional food cultures, concentration of ownership, capital and power in the food chain, social disparity, and land conflicts (Tilman et al. 2002, Altieri 2000, Shiva 2000, Heffernan 2000). This paper examines food systems in four very different contexts: rural Cyprus, the remote Arctic, and cities in North and South America (Waterloo Region, Ontario, Canada; and Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil). This review of these diverse food systems reveals a breadth of complex challenges posed by the changing food systems as well as some approaches that are being used to nudge communities towards more sustainable and healthy food systems.

The methodology employed in this research included a review of peer-reviewed literature and government documents, as well as field observations, and key-informant interviews. These interviews involved farmers, government officials, and health professionals, in addition to community residents. The authors have both research and lived experience in Cyprus, northern Canadian communities, Feira de Santana and Waterloo Region. Researchers inevitably bring their own biases to the project and when they choose a particular theoretical perspective. In this paper, questions of sustainability are considered in terms of the socio-ecological resilience of desired food systems. That said, care has been taken here to accurately relay the perspectives of diverse viewpoints. Effort has been made to minimize the jargon associated with the theoretical underpinnings of this research by focusing on a more descriptive portrayal of changing food systems.

The following accounts from each of the four food systems consider how local, traditional systems have been altered in various degrees by the global agri-food system. A comparative examination reveals some similarities between the four examples despite geographical or cultural differences. The findings suggest that, where feasible, it makes sense to revisit and, perhaps, restore some of those traditional practices that are being lost in order to foster sustainable, healthy food systems.

Food systems in transition

The four regions discussed here, from the climatic extremes of Cyprus to Nunavut in the Canadian Arctic, and two urban centres in North and South America, are all showing symptoms of a weakening self-reliance in their local food systems that is adversely impacting community health and sustainability.

The Greek Republic of Cyprus

Cyprus, a small country with an ancient civilization, is located at the crossroads of three continents: Europe, Africa and Asia. Pummeled by war and occupied by invading forces for much of its long history, Greek Cypriots learned to be very self-reliant, depending on the land to sustain them. Throughout the centuries they were able to maintain their Greek culture, society and traditions--a culture that dates back to 1200 B.C. This longevity could be attributed to many things including its primarily agrarian society which supported strong family and community networks. This small island state of approximately 780,000 people still contains only a few mid-sized cities and many smaller communities. In the villages, right into the first few decades of the 20th century, people lived off the land--spinning their own clothes, growing their own food, and frequently engaging in barter to achieve some goods and services.

In ancient Cyprus (and Greece) the Agora (Ayo[rho][alpha]) known as both the 'marketplace' and the 'meeting place', was the centre of social, political and economic life (Flaceiere 1959). Dishes, made from fruit and vegetables grown on the island for centuries, have meanings that go beyond the food itself--family and village traditions have been created around them. Much of the diet was linked to spiritual traditions of feasting and fasting associated with the Greek Orthodox Calendar. It also has been influenced by many Turkish dishes, introduced by Turkish Cypriots who lived as neighbours with the Greek Cypriots until events in the 1970s separated the two cultures. (1)

The traditional Mediterranean diet, located in olive-growing areas such as Cyprus, is based heavily on the consumption of olive oil, vegetables, fruits, unrefined cereal, fish, and lower consumption of meats and dairy products (Trichopoulou and Vasilopoulou 2008). In one study, it has been suggested that the Mediterranean diet is associated with longevity and good health and is the result of a combination of foods rather than single nutrients--a combination that was developed through centuries of traditions rather than scientific investigations (Trichopoulou and Vasilopoulou 2008: 343).

In recent decades, however, the globalization of food and agricultural systems (e.g. cheaper food imports, export-oriented agriculture, dependence on external inputs) has undermined Cypriot agricultural traditions--traditions which centuries of foreign occupation had been unable to uproot. As in other parts of the world (see sections below), Cypriot farms were historically small, and the means of production simple, creating 'semi-wild' diverse areas for wildlife habitat. As one study noted, small fields that supported the age-old olive groves, grape vines, and carob trees provided a diverse habitat for many bird species and other wildlife. Yet, recent agricultural intensification is leading to the abandonment of these types of farms and associated traditions as well as the displacement of wildlife and, most notably, the bird population which has been crashing in recent years (Hadjisterkotis 2007:15). In the current Cyprus food system, people do have access to food, but those whose livelihoods depended primarily on the land will be quick to tell you how difficult it is to live on the economic margins at a subsistence level. They will also tell you of tremendous social losses associated with the gradual disappearance of that traditional way of life including loss of community connections and special celebrations inextricably connected to food production, preparation and sharing (Andreas Kattides 2008). That relates to what Glenn Albrecht called 'Solastalgia', referring to

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