Work-home conflict: a study of the effects of role conflict on military officer turnover intention.

This research examined work and family influences on military officers' retention decisions. Work-home conflict was used to predict retention decisions of military officers. Results indicated that work-related variables had insignificant effects on turnover intentions, a finding contrary to work-family literature that suggests work-related experiences are more likely to predict turnover intentions than family-related experiences. Family satisfaction with military life affected retention decisions, suggesting that members considered their families' satisfaction with military life above their own work-related attitudes. Results indicated that as family members' general satisfaction with military life improved, a corresponding positive effect on the members' willingness to remain in the service resulted.

Keywords: turnover; work-home conflict; family satisfaction; military

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The U.S. Air Force (USAF) recently underwent one of the largest transformational efforts since its inception in 1947 (Air Force Personnel Center [AFPC], 2006) in order to, as former USAF Chief of Staff General John Jumper described, "reshape the force to correct existing skill imbalances and account for a new range of missions in the Global War on Terror" (Jumper, 2004). Since the conclusion of the first Persian Gulf War, the USAF has reduced its active duty force by roughly 40%, from 608,000 to fewer than 375,000 members, in an adjustment to the changing geo-political environment following the end of the Cold War (Jumper, 2004; Moseley, 2006). A program entitled Force Shaping took effect to steer this transformation of manpower to its ultimate goal of a reduction of another 40,000 personnel by 2011 (AFPC, 2006). As the USAF eliminated slack in its manning and balanced the force, retention of knowledgeable, skilled organizational members was critical. However, as the force becomes balanced and aligns with its envisioned end strength, research (Dalton, Todor, & Krackhardt, 1982) indicates that the voluntary turnover of personnel may have an increased, negative effect on mission effectiveness. As manpower reductions in the USAF continue, it is essential to consider activities that maximize the retention of valuable labor resources and to better understand why members choose to depart an organization in order to proactively counter the potential loss of desirable personnel. More specific, the purpose of this study was to examine work and family influences on military officers' retention decisions. The findings reveal that family satisfaction with military life affected officer retention decisions, suggesting that military members considered their families' satisfaction with military life above their own work-related attitudes. In addition, results indicated that as family members' general satisfaction with military life improved, a corresponding positive effect on the members' willingness to remain in the service resulted.

Although traditional turnover predictors such as job satisfaction (Mobley, 1977; Price, 1977; Spector, 1997), organizational commitment (Huselid & Day, 1991; Meyer & Allen, 1991; Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982), and turnover intention (Griffeth, Hom, & Gaertner, 2000; Steel, 2002; Tett & Meyer, 1993) are prevalent in the management literature, researchers have only recently begun to examine the potentially significant effects of family life on work-related behaviors, especially turnover (e.g., Eby, Casper, Lockwood, Bordeaux, & Brinley, 2005; Greenhaus, Collins, Singh, & Parasuraman, 1997; Greenhaus & Powell, 2003; Hom & Griffeth, 1995; Rosin & Korabik, 1990). Mobley (1982) called attention to the likely effects of family on the turnover process, and in the past 25 years, researchers have investigated the relationship between family and work (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003); however, little research has been conducted on the effects of family on the turnover process (Greenhaus et al., 1997), especially in the military.

The demands of work and family are not always compatible, leading to potential conflict between the two domains, which may generate negative effects, including turnover (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005). To address the familial responsibilities and stressors that might also be placed on unmarried employees, the conflict traditionally known as work-family conflict (Eby et al., 2005; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985) has been designated as work-home conflict (WHC) by Greenhaus et al. (1997). Further research has shown that individuals who participate in both work and family roles are likely to experience conflict between those roles (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003), and researchers investigating this conflict have found that employees who experience high levels of WHC report lower satisfaction with job, life, marriage, and family (Hammer, Bauer, & Grandey, 2003; Leiter & Dump, 1996; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005). Other researchers have explored the idea that work and home roles can be mutually reinforcing and that multiple roles can produce positive outcomes for individuals (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003). However, this study concentrates on the nonsupporting relationship between work and home and applies a modified Greenhaus et al. (1997) model of turnover to military officers to understand WHC in a new domain.

With a lack of extensive empirical research on WHC in the military, this research attempted to replicate the Greenhaus et al. (1997) study to further refine and evaluate the extent to which WHC influences stress and turnover intention in the military. Previous tests of the construct have been limited primarily to accounting, shift work, health care, mid-level female management, and civil service (police) employees. Although USAF company grade officers (CGOs) are similar to some of these groups in terms of organizational level, education level, and career progression, some significant differences exist. Military officers are employed on a contractual basis, wherein individuals must agree to serve a minimum period of time per promotion in order to retire at the higher grade, frequent permanent changes of station (relocations), or other binding circumstance. Military life demands unusually high levels of commitment and dedication from both the member and family members in terms of hazardous duty assignments, possibility of capture or death, frequent relocations, and extended family separations (Bowen, 1989).

As CGOs (2nd lieutenants, 1st lieutenants, and captains) are in the prime window for voluntary turnover, between 1 year and promotion to field grade rank (what Greenhaus et al. represented as between 1 year and promotion to manager for accountants), they are the most appropriate facet of the officer corps to focus on for this study. (Note: The rank of Major in the USAF is usually achieved after 11 years of commissioned service.) Per Greenhaus et al.'s (1997) suggestion to evaluate married employees, single employees, and employees without children, CGOs were studied to assess the construct's ability to explain variability in turnover intention across a diverse employee group.

Review of Literature

Turnover. Turnover, the voluntary or involuntary act of leaving an organization, occurs at a specific time that is marked by the actual physical separation of the individual from the organization (Mobley, 1982). Functional voluntary turnover, the voluntary separation of an individual whom the organization has negatively evaluated, may be argued to be good for the organization (Dalton et al., 1982). However, dysfunctional voluntary turnover, the voluntary separation of an individual whom the organization has positively evaluated, may be viewed as harmful to the organization (Dalton et al., 1982; Hellman, 1997). Retaining positively evaluated, qualified personnel poses a problem, as dysfunctional voluntary turnover wastes training dollars and reduces organizational effectiveness (La Rocco, Pugh, & Gunderson, 1977).

In a more recent alternative view of turnover, Lee and Mitchell (1994) considered an alternative approach to turnover indicating that individuals may experience situations that may put them on the path toward turnover. In their "unfolding model of turnover," Lee and Mitchell propose a six-stage process in which individuals deliberate through a series of decision steps, to include shock, engaged script, image violation, satisfaction, search, and likely offer. Of interest to this research is the concept of a "shock." Per the unfolding model, a shock may start an individual thinking about leaving an organization, may be neutral, positive, or negative, and may be expected or unexpected. Examples of shocks may include job transfers, changes to marital status, and unsolicited job offers (Lee & Mitchell, 1994). Although a test of the unfolding model is beyond the scope of this research, the concept of shock as a component in the turnover process is discussed to highlight two relevant areas. First, the concept of shock from the unfolding model has been used to assess turnover in military settings (Holt, Rehg, Lin, & Miller, 2007). Second, the components comprising WHC may be considered shocks and, thus, are relevant to the relationship between WHC and turnover in this article.

Work-home conflict. Mobley (1982) called attention to the likely effects of family on the turnover process. Research on WHC has shown that the conflict between the work and family domains arises from concurrent pressures in both domains that are in some respect incompatible (Eby et al., 2005; Greenhaus & Beutell, 1985; Greenhaus & Powell, 2003; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005). As a result of this perceived lack of compatibility, participation in one role is made more difficult by participation in the other. The foundation of the conflict perspective in WHC is based on scarcity theory, which suggests that personal resources such as time and energy are limited and that allocation of greater resources dedicated to one role necessarily reduces the resources allocated to the other (Greenhaus & Powell, 2003). Research on the conflict between work and family roles by Greenhaus and Beutell (1985) suggests that WHC exists when time dedicated to the requirements of one role makes it difficult to fulfill the requirements of the other; strain from involvement in one role makes it difficult to fulfill the requirements of the other; and specific behaviors required by one role make it difficult to fulfill the requirements of another.

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