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Weekly UpdatesUsing the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; R. V. Dawis & L. H. Lofquist, 1984; L. H. Lofquist & R. V. Dawis, 1969) as a framework for identifying potential career challenges for lesbians, the authors explore the relationship between outness and discrimination and the four primary components of TWA. Career counseling implications are discussed, and specific suggestions are made for counselors.
Women who self-identify as lesbian represent a significant and invisible minority (Fassinger, 1991); current estimates suggest that as much as 3.6% of the population, or 2,300,000 women, are lesbian (Diamond, 1999). Statistics from the U.S. Bureau of the Census (2000) indicated that women, as a group, earn only 72% of the amount earned by their male counterparts. Lesbian women report even more diminished earnings, at 5% to 14% less than the national average for women (Badgett, 1995). Reported incidents of employment discrimination as well as hate crimes against lesbians have increased over the past 5 years (Federal Bureau of Investigation, 2000). With these very real threats to economic and physical survival, it seems that a lesbian would have strong reasons for maintaining secrecy regarding her sexual orientation. Conversely, using the high amount of energy required to accomplish this may interfere with job performance and satisfaction and may stall career development and advancement (Fogarty, 1980). This di chotomy places lesbians in positions in which either choice may result in an outcome that is less than optimal, and possibly detrimental, to their careers. Lesbians must determine the most efficacious strategy for career advancement while balancing the importance of "outness" on the job against the potential for negative consequences.
Black, Gates, Sanders, and Taylor (2000) found that as a group, individuals who self-report as lesbian or gay exist in all age categories, approximate the racial mix found in the total population, and are better educated than the average individual. Many contemporary authors also emphasized the similarities between lesbians and heterosexual women in appearance, interests, goals, and identities (e.g., Loulan, 1990). Despite the similarities, however, lesbians often face more obstacles as they work to achieve their career goals, while following career paths that are often more circuitous and lengthy (Boatwright, Gilbert, Forrest, & Ketzenberger, 1996) than those of heterosexual women. Perceived and actual threats to employment security exist for lesbians and potentially limit self-disclosure. Yet, the process of sexual identity formation has been shown to transform, sometimes positively and sometimes negatively, virtually all aspects of a lesbian's life, including her career (Fassinger, 1996).
There are two specific concerns of lesbian career development that invite further exploration: the decision to disclose sexual orientation to others and the experience of discrimination that is based on sexual orientation. Because the Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984; Lofquist & Dawis, 1969) is a comprehensive career theory that incorporates career choice and subsequent career development while addressing both individual characteristics and pertinent environmental factors, it is well-suited for application to lesbian career concerns. Using TWA as a framework, we explore career concerns of lesbians and discuss implications for career counseling.
Theory of Work Adjustment and Its Relationship to Lesbian Career Development
Career development literature that specifically examined the career concerns of lesbians and gay men is limited, and little empirical work has been completed to date. Several traditional career theories have been evaluated for their applicability to lesbians and gay men, including those of Holland (see Mobley & Slaney, 1996), Super (see Dunkle, 1996), and Social Cognitive Career Theory (see Morrow, Gore, & Campbell, 1996). Although strong cases are made in support of the applicability of these theories to lesbian career development, TWA seems to be an equally appropriate theory that is applicable to minority populations, particularly given TWA's focus on the individual's interface with the work environment.
TWA is the product of an integration of concepts from several different theoretical orientations, including individual differences, learning theory, human relations, and vocational psychology paradigms (Dawis, 1994). The four prime components of TWA are satisfaction, person--environment correspondence, reinforcement value, and ability. It is clear that lesbians face particular challenges within each of these four facets of career development.
Career Satisfaction
Career satisfaction involves an individual's attitudes and feelings, or affective orientation, regarding his or her work roles within an organization. Dawis and Lofquist (1984) defined this as an employee's appraisal of how well the work environment fulfils requirements for reinforcers or needs. In addition, TWA addresses the satisfaction of the environment with the individual, a concept called "satisfactoriness" (Dawis, 1994). Variables that contribute to career satisfaction are found within the individual and within the work environment (Lease, 1998). For lesbians, a specific environmental factor that inhibits career satisfaction is discrimination, both sanctioned and illicit, based solely on sexual orientation.
Vocational discrimination against lesbians often results in diminished career satisfaction due to limited opportunities and limited financial rewards (Ferguson &Finkler, 1978). Research by Ellis and Riggle (1996) reported that individuals who were not completely open, often termed closeted, about their sexual identity at work were more satisfied with their income and generally had higher incomes than those individuals who disclosed sexual orientation to employers and coworkers. Research (Gutek, Cohen, & Tsui, 1996) indicated that perceived discrimination can foster a sense of helplessness in an employee. This can be intensified for lesbians who work in settings in which discrimination is not legally prohibited. Day and Schoenrade (1997) reported results of a study on the relationship between being open about sexual orientation at work and work attitudes. Their research focused on the negative outcomes (including lower job satisfaction, greater role conflicts, and less commitment to remain at a particular job) that might accrue for lesbians and gay men who are not open about their sexual orientation on the job. They were able to provide support for their hypothesis that homosexuals who did not disclose their sexual orientation would report lower job satisfaction and greater role conflicts. However, the group reported high scores for continuance commitment, which implies that rather than seek out a more supportive and tolerant work setting, lesbians would choose to continue employment in an environment that provided limited job satisfaction, greater role conflict, and intolerance for an integral facet of their overall identity. The researchers suggested that perhaps these individuals saw their current position as one of a very limited number of career options.
Relationships with coworkers are another important factor in career satisfaction (Day & Schoenrade, 1997) that may reflect the openness and sense of belonging an employee finds with other employees. The success a lesbian may have in developing these relationships may be contingent on her level of outness and the perceived effect openness may have on her coworkers. This conflict speaks to the attainment of intangible rewards (i.e., relationships) that women often seek on the job (Driscoll, Kelley, & Fassinger, 1996) but may be particularly difficult for lesbians to achieve.
Equitable pay, good relationships with coworkers, and advancement opportunities are a few of the needs that may go unsatisfied for lesbians who come out on the job. Making the decision to come out may satisfy a personal rather than a career-related need and may negatively affect relationships with others as well as invite the possibility of discrimination. A woman may no longer feel a sense of belonging at her workplace, which also reflects a compromised person--environment correspondence.
Person--Environment Correspondence
Person--environment correspondence, necessary to a successful vocation within a particular environment, has been described as harmony between the employee and her or his environment (Dawis, 1994). The concept of correspondence moves beyond the concept of person-environment fit developed by Holland (1997), which implied simply a vocational match or fit. Person-environment correspondence, as posited in TWA, includes a sense of mutual interaction and behavior between the individual and her or his environment.
Because of tacit and expressed discrimination against sexual minorities, person--environment correspondence is likely the least predictable and most influential component of TWA. Perhaps the most threatening and least preventable organizational feature that affects career development for lesbians is the prevalence of discrimination and harassment. Ample research has shown that lesbians and gay men face employment discrimination (see Croteau, Anderson, Distefano, & Kampa-Kokesch, 2000, for a comprehensive listing). All other components may indicate healthy career development within an organization for a lesbian, including requisite abilities and skills, multiple avail able reinforcement values, and potential satisfaction with the tasks and the environment, yet discrimination and bias from coworkers or employers may lead to low person--environment correspondence, thus foreclosing the possibility of a successful employment relationship. Additionally, in a study on gender roles and role conflicts (Peters & Cantr ell, 1993), lesbians reported less satisfaction than heterosexual women in their relationships with work-related acquaintances, both coworkers and employers, indicating a less than optimal person--environment correspondence. Role conflict and satisfaction with relationships were not dependent on whether or not the lesbians had disclosed their sexual identity.
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