Who's running the farm?: changes and characteristics of Arkansas women in agriculture.

Women in agriculture are tremendous contributors to American society, especially within rural communities, because of the roles they play on and off the farm. Their involvement on the farm is expanding to include more decision-making and hands-on participation, and these roles have opened the door for many more women to become farmers. In the mid 1980s, educators began to notice the changing role of American women in agriculture, and conferences targeting these women emerged in a handful of states. Today, programs (often in the form of an annual training workshop or conference) for women in agriculture are developing across the United States. These programs represent a first step but thus far in most states have not effectively identified and addressed the needs of agriculture women in their changing and challenging roles.

Not only is the farm woman's role increasing on farms, but many farm women are also venturing off farm to provide additional income for the household and to give leadership to and participate in organizations that support regional agriculture and rural communities. As with their on-farm roles, there is a lack of information on the problems they face, factors important to their success, the extent of their leadership, and their level of satisfaction in these off-farm roles. Some surveys of farm women have been conducted to examine these issues, but these surveys are generally insufficient because data exist only for one point in time. Therefore, these surveys cannot be used to examine changes in roles, skills and needs over time. The purpose of this research is to provide results of the second survey of Arkansas' women in agriculture and to compare them with results of the previous year's survey. It is hoped that this information can be useful not only to researchers and educators interested in addressing needs of local women but help to illustrate the continuing changes in women's roles and their needs and thus the need for extended research over time to address these needs.

Background

Women's roles in agriculture are both broadening and increasing. A history of studies done on farm women was presented in Albright (2005). Today, in a lifestyle where time is eminent, these women continue to give themselves in numerous ways to agricultural, community, and rural development. The 2002 Census of Agriculture showed a 40% increase in the number of women operators in the last decade. Women now comprise 27.2% of all farm operators, and in Arkansas, they are 28.6% of operators. Nearly 25% of those are principal operators. Women now run 11.2% of all American farms (USDA NASS 2004).

Farm women are now broadening their responsibilities to include roles off farm. Thirty percent of farm women worked off the farm in 1969 (Sachs 1983). By 2002, 47% of women worked off farm. In Arkansas that percentage was 46 (USDA NASS 2004). There are many reasons why women work off farm. Farmers take off-farm jobs to complement low farm earnings, reduce risk caused by reliance on farm income, and simply keep their farms (Haney and Knowles 1988). Even though it may be necessary, the decision to work off the farm is difficult for many women. Research shows that younger women with higher education levels and no small children are the most likely to find off-farm jobs (Haney and Knowles 1988; Tanner 1999).

As far back as 1857, farm women were working toward rural and community development with organizations (Tanner 1999). The organizations provide them with skills and networking opportunities, and the women use these organizations to mitigate agricultural and social problems by establishing county health departments, community libraries, community recreation centers, and home industry shops, curb-side markets and cooperative farm markets to sell goods (Tanner 1999). Even though women often met separately from men in agricultural organizations and did not hold leadership positions in those early years, they were still vital to the organizations by raising funds, organizing local community members, and educating the family and neighborhood on important issues (Haney and Knowles 1988).

In addition to these farm women (who have roles on and off the farm), there are other women who are also important to the agricultural industry. These are women who may have never lived or worked on a farm but hold positions in firms that support agriculture such as agricultural lending institutions, farm input suppliers, veterinary/animal clinics, and agricultural processors. For many years, positions in these organizations were predominantly held by men, but because of the expansion of educational opportunities, more women are choosing college programs that prepare them for important positions in agricultural fields. The number of women receiving agriculture-related degrees has more than doubled since 1993, to reach 28,801 degrees given to females in 2000 (USDA REEIS 2000).

In meeting the needs of these women who can be classified as FARM women (live on farm but may work on and/or off farm) and NON-FARM women (do not live on farms but work in agriculturally supporting industries), researchers need to understand their goals and the factors they face that limit their ability to be successful in their ventures. However, success is measured differently by different people. It could mean maximizing income or profit for some (Hoy, Carland, and Carland 1984), or it may be nonfinancial, such as assisting the community or being able to use a skill that is important to them (Buttner and Moore 1997; Mayasami, Cooper, and Valeria 1999). Consumer theory in economics can help explain these differences. In consumer theory, utility or satisfaction is maximized, not profit (Nicholson 2004). The level of utility received from a good or service (or in this case, success for a farm woman or non-farm woman) is closely tied to tastes and preferences of the individual. A person can be said to maximize utility subject to a constraint, such as the amount of time in a week. This can be represented graphically as in figure 1. Two potentially important factors in business success (e.g., meeting financial needs and using one's skills) are placed on two different axes. The mix of these factors is used to produce utility levels along the curves [U.sub.1] and [U.sub.2]. Line E represents the budget constraint (which could be any factor that limits business success). Optimal utility is found where the constraint is tangent to the highest utility curve (point C in figure 1). Different agricultural women will have different constraints and preferences and therefore can be expected to reach different levels of success or utility from their on-farm or off-farm business/leadership activity.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

This research about Arkansas women in agriculture began last year in conjunction with the first Arkansas Women in Agriculture conference. The purpose of the conference is to provide skills and networking opportunities for women involved in all aspects of agriculture (production, processing, marketing, agribusiness, and agriculture organizations). Participants of the first conference were surveyed in spring 2005, and responses were analyzed early in the summer. Results suggest that women in principal roles in their farms/ranches and agribusinesses share or lead decision making across many business/family concerns. Many women feel that quality of life, family finances, relationships with others in agriculture and changes in capital investment in the farm/business improved as their role in decision making increased over time. The majority of women who own/operate the farm want to continue the farm, even if they lose domestic/business partners. Farm owner/operators share many opinions regarding the importance of various factors in their work and the challenges they face to be successful with other women in agriculture. However, results suggest women farm owner/operators face greater challenges in their work than other women in agriculture. Largest challenges were faced in finding good employees, finding/affording legal advice, keeping financial records and being respected as a female business person. The least often cited challenge for owner/operators was access to credit.

A second survey was conducted at the 2006 Women in Agriculture Conference in March. Analysis of this data began June 1. (1) This article presents results of that analysis.

Methods

To assess the roles Arkansas women hold and their changing needs based on those roles, research is being conducted in three phases. Phase One (May-August 2005) consisted of developing, conducting and evaluating a survey of women who attended the 2005 Arkansas Women in Agriculture (ARWIA) conference. Phase Two (March-July 2006) consists of revising, conducting, and evaluating a survey of the 2006 ARWIA conference participants. Phase Three (July-September 2006) will consist of follow up interviews with survey respondents from both years to examine some of the survey responses in more detail and to explore other key factors identified by the women but not examined in the written survey. This paper focuses on progress made thus far on Phase Two, as well as comparison between the two years' results.

Three hundred women were asked to complete a six-page survey with twenty-nine questions at the 2006 ARWIA conference. This survey was constructed according to methods described by Salant and Dillman (1994), pretested on selected agricultural women, and revised after the first conference. The survey consisted of two main parts--questions designed specifically for farm/ ranch/agribusiness owner/operators (FARM women), as well as questions for all female attendees, whether they were farm employees, worked in supporting--e.g., credit, input--industries, were retired or students, (NON-FARM women). Owner/operators were given questions related to: (1) their operation/ business (type, size, and location), (2) their role in management, (3) sources of information to assist in that role, and (4) changes in their role and its impact on various decision making and other areas of their lives (use of capital, use of labor, impact on family finances, impact on quality of life for self and others). All female participants--FARM and NON-FARM--were asked to respond to questions related to: (1) importance of various characteristics of their work (such as applying their talents to the job, having secure employment, meeting financial needs, balancing work and free time, assisting others in the community, etc.), (2) areas of difficulty in their work (access to credit, networking with others, managing cash flow, marketing products, etc.), (3) involvement in farm and community organizations, and (4) various demographic characteristics.

Small changes were made to the survey for the second year. For all participants, questions asking about present or past ownership and/or management for different types of agribusinesses and agricultural operations were added, as well as a question to distinguish the primary work position. The question asking women if they or their spouse held an off-farm job was split into two questions to determine who (woman or spouse) held an off-farm job and why.

Summary statistics were constructed over all questions and all ranges of responses. Responses were then separated into FARM and NON-FARM categories. Summary statistics were calculated to create a set of rankings of factors important to FARM and NON-FARM women for the success of their business activity and for problems they face in their businesses. Next, Chi square and Fisher's Exact tests were used to determine if statistically significant differences existed in the responses. The same tests were used to compare responses between the two years.

Results

All 300 in attendance at the conference were asked to participate in the survey: 108 responded for a response rate of 36%. Sixty-nine of the respondents were FARM women. The rest were NON-FARM women with jobs and/or memberships in agribusiness or lending institutions, and farm organizations. Results are presented for three groups: (1) 2006 FARM women, (2) all 2006 respondents, and (3) comparison of 2005 and 2006 respondents. Due to the survey design, results for NON-FARM women are presented in the all 2006 respondents section.

Characteristics of FARM Women in 2006

Characteristics of the FARM women are presented in table 1 and can be summarized as follows. Two-thirds of these women considered themselves to be the main operator or one of the main operators of their business activity; almost half were full agricultural partners.

Of these women, fifteen (22% of the FARM women) were principal operators. Fifty-one (74%) of FARM women were in family or sole proprietorships. Most share decision-making responsibility with their spouses and family. Thirty percent said their decision-making and leadership roles on the farm have increased over the last three years, and over half of those women indicated that this has led to improvements in labor management, family finances, expansion/contraction plans, children's roles in the business, relationships with other farm families and agribusinesses, and quality of life for self and family. Sixty-six percent responded that should something happen to their domestic/business partner, they would probably (24%) or definitely (42%) continue to run the business activity on their own.

Of the FARM women, 56% held off-farm jobs. Most indicated a need of money for household and business expenses and a need of benefits. Seventy-four percent said the skills acquired in their owner/operator position enhanced their abilities in their off-farm job. Only 31% of the FARM women had spouses with off-farm jobs. Chi square and Fisher tests indicated that FARM women with off-farm jobs found balancing work and free time and providing jobs for the community less important in their jobs than FARM women who worked only on farm. Tests also found that FARM women with off-farm jobs have more difficulty finding good information about production/agribusiness/business best management practices and handling their cash flow. Difference in farm sizes between FARM women with and without off-farm jobs might explain these differences in opinions because women with off-farm jobs on smaller farms would have less income from the farm to better handle cash flow and less value for a balance of work and free time and providing jobs for the community because of more constraint. However, statistical tests show there is no significant difference (P = 0.108) in farm size between the two groups.

Characteristics of All Respondents

Survey respondents were caucasian (88%), Native American (8%), and African American (5%). Seventy-six percent of all respondents were married, and 69% had two adults living in their household, while 66% had no children in the household. Over 60% had a two-year college level or higher degree. Almost 70% were between the ages of 35 and 64. Forty-three percent reported incomes between $50,000 and $99,999, and 28% said that 75-100% of their income came from agriculture. Between the FARM and NON-FARM, more NON-FARM women had never been married, were younger, and had less income from agriculture.

All respondents were asked to indicate whether certain factors were important to them in their operation/business. These rankings are presented in table 2. Visual review of the table suggests that rankings are different between FARM and NON-FARM women. Factors most important to feeling successful in their work for NON-FARM women were trying new ways of doing things, applying talents and skills, employment security, being excited about work, and being able to meet financial needs. FARM women ranked applying talents and skills, being involved in the community, being excited about work, trying new ways of doing things, and participating in environmental conservation as the top five factors important to success.

Statistical tests were conducted to determine if differences existed between FARM and NON-FARM women's opinions on any one of those factors. Results are presented in table 3. Fisher's Exact test showed there were significant differences in FARM and NON-FARM women's attitudes toward the importance of the factors in their work life. Strong significant differences (P < 0.05) were found for three factors. More FARM women agreed that it was important to be able to pass on the business to family. NON-FARM women were more likely to agree that it was important to feel secure about their employment future. A higher percentage of FARM women disagreed that it was important not to have to make key decisions about the business. More NON-FARM women strongly agreed that it was important to try new ways of doing things and balance work and free time.

All respondents were also asked for their opinion regarding potential problems they might face in their work. These rankings are also provided in table 4. Again, visual observation suggests differences. NON-FARM women ranked being respected as a female business person, networking, qualifying for government programs, finding information about government programs, and finding/affording a good lawyer as their biggest challenges. FARM women ranked keeping good employees, qualifying for government programs, being respected as a female business person, finding/affording a good lawyer, and keeping up with environmental regulations as their biggest challenges.

As with the factors important to success, statistical tests have been conducted to check for significant differences between opinions of FARM and NON-FARM women for each problem. These results are in table 5. Fisher's Exact test showed strong significant differences in FARM and NON-FARM women's attitudes toward two problems--keeping financial records (more FARM women disagreed) and keeping good employees (more FARM women agreed).

All the respondents were asked about their membership and leadership in general or commodity farm organizations, women's groups associated with farm or commodity organizations, cooperative extension activities, and nonagricultural business organizations for women. Of all respondents, 72% were in at least one organization, and 48% were in two or more. Forty-two percent of women were leaders in at least one organization, and 19% were leaders in two or more.

Comparison between 2005 and 2006 Respondents

Next, responses from the 2005 and 2006 surveys were compared for differences in attitudes towards factors important to success of their business and problems they face in the business. Statistical differences were found between the FARM women, the NON-FARM women and all respondents for each year.

First, comparisons were made for factors that are important to them in the success of their business. When all respondents were compared across the two years, significant differences were found in their attitudes toward the importance of flexible work hours and passing the business on to a family member (more of the 2005 respondents agreed). When comparing only the NON-FARM women, significant differences were found in the importance of being involved in the community (2005 NON-FARM women agreed more often), passing the business on to a family member (2006 NON-FARM respondents disagreed much more often), the ability to meet current financial needs (2005 NON-FARM respondents agreed more), and having flexible work hours (2005 NON-FARM respondents agreed more). There were no significant differences between responses of FARM women in 2005 and 2006 regarding factors important to the success of their business.

Next, comparisons were made regarding problems respondents face in their businesses. When all respondents were compared for the two years, no significant differences were found.

For NON-FARM women, differences were found for finding good information about best management practices and finding/affording a good lawyer (2006 NON-FARM women disagreed more often in both cases). For FARM women, significant differences were found for keeping financial records (2006 FARM women disagreed more often).

Comparisons were made between 2005 and 2006 responses for 15 questions that were asked only to FARM women. Significant differences existed only for two--more 2006 women agreed that (1) they would definitely continue to run the business should something happen to their partner, and (2) their changed role had impacted expansion/contraction plans for their business.

Summary and Conclusions

As the number of women (FARM and NON-FARM) involved in agriculture increases, the roles these women play are likely to include more responsibilities including leadership and decision making. Survey results suggest FARM women are moving into those roles. More research is needed to confirm roles of NON-FARM women. While conferences and ongoing research are working to meet the needs of these women in terms of education and networking, those needs vary from different groups of women and at different points in time. This paper presents the findings of the second phase of a study to assess the roles and needs of Arkansas women in agriculture, as well as compare the data from the previous year.

Responses from the surveys show the efforts made by women to improve their own lives and that of their community by taking on new roles, seeking work off the farm to earn income and benefits for the household, and leading women's and agricultural organizations. More than half of the farm women consider themselves to be one of the main operators and would continue to run the business if something happened to their partner. Farm and non-farm women share some of the same problems in business, as well as the factors they find important to their success. However, because of their diverse backgrounds and dissimilar job responsibilities, their opinions on matters such as the importance of passing on the business to family and having employment security and the problem of keeping good employees are significantly different.

References

Albright, C.C. 2005. "The Changing Face of Agriculture: Characteristics and Perceptions of Arkansas Women in Agriculture." Presented at the 2005 SS-AAEA Undergraduate Paper Competition, Providence, RI, July.

Buttner, E., and D. Moore. 1997. "Women's Organizational Exodus to Entrepreneurship: Self Reported Motivations and Correlates with Success." Journal of Small Business Management 35:34-46.

Haney, W.G., and J.B. Knowles. 1988. Women and Farming: Changing Roles, Changing Structures. Boulder: Westview Press.

Hoy, F., J. Carland, and J. Carland. 1984. "Differentiating Entrepreneurs from Small Business Owners: A Conceptualization." Academy of Management Review 9:354-9.

Mayasami, R., G. Cooper, and E Valeria. 1999. "Female Business Owners in Singapore and Elsewhere: A Review of Studies." Journal of Small Business Management 37:96-105.

Nicholson, W. 2004. Microeconomic Theory: Basic Principles and Extensions, 9th ed. New York: South-Western Co.

Sachs, C.E. 1983. The Invisible Farmers: Women in Agricultural Production. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld.

Tanner, B.O. 1999. The Entrepreneurial Characteristics of Farm Women. New York: Garland P.

U.S. Department of Agriculture. National Agricultural Statistics Service. 2004. 2002 Census of Agriculture. Available at http://www.nass.usda.gov/census/

U.S. Department of Agriculture. Research, Education, and Economics Information System. 2000. Total FAEIS Degrees Awarded by Classification of Instructional Program and Gender. Available at http://www.reeis.usda.gov/discoverer/

The author would like to thank her advisor and mentor, Dr. Jennie Popp. for her patience, understanding, and wisdom that was offered to her no matter what country she happened to be in. The author would also like to express her gratitude to Ms. Stacey McCullough for her thoughts and suggestions on the survey and research project. The author would also like to give her appreciation to her SAS trainer, Ms. Diana Danforth, for teaching her to not only use SAS and statistical analysis, but to understand it. Funding for this project was provided in part from the University of Arkansas, Division of Agriculture, Public Issues Education Center.

(1) The survey instrument was prepared in fall 2005. In spring 2006, the author of this article participated in a study abroad program in Ghana, West Africa. As such, analysis could not begin until her return, June 1. Table 1. Summary Statistics for FARM Women

Number of Definition Observations Mean General

Number of acres owned 63 784.29

Number of acres rented 47 715.79

Consider sell as the or one of

the main operators: 1 = Yes, O = No 68 0.66

Role in operation: Principal

operator = 1, Full partner = 2, Business

manager = 3, Helper = 4 63 2.25

Woman holds off-farm job 66 0.56 Decision Making Areas

For each area below:

Woman = 1, Others = 2,

Both woman and others = 3

Buy/sell/rent land/business property 67 2.60

Buy/sell major equipment 67 2.57

Types of business/farm practices used 65 2.48

When/where to sell products 64 2.50

When/how to hire workers 65 2.66

Whether or not to borrow money 66 2.65

How major household expenditures are made 66 2.39 Role Change

Compared to three years ago:

Greater role today = 2,

Lesser role = l, No change = 0 67 0.69 Impact of Role Change

Role has led to changes in this

area: Yes = 1, No = 0

Capital investment in operation 26 0.46

Labor Use in business 27 0.63

Expansion/contraction plans in business 26 0.69

Level of environmental concerns 26 0.50

Role children should play in business 26 0.65

Impact on family finances 26 0.77

Quality of life for self and family 27 0.93

Relationships with other

agriculture/business families 25 0.76 Continuation

If loss of domestic/business partner,

would continue to run business: Yes = 1,

Prob yes = 2, Prob no = 3, No = 4 66 2.11 Table 2. Rankings of Farm and Non-farm Women's Factors Important in Business Factors Farm Non-farm I can apply talents and skills directly 1 2 1 feel secure in my employment 8 2 I can make key decisions 12 13 1 don't have to make key decisions 14 12 I can meet current financial needs 6 4 I can try new ways of doing things 4 1 I can participate in environmental

conservation programs (ag and nonag) 5 9 I am excited about my work 3 4 1 have flexible work hours 9 10 I can balance my work and free time 11 6 I can be involved in my community 2 6 I improve my standard of living 7 6 I can pass on the business to a

family member 10 14 I can provide jobs for my community 12 11 Table 3. Significant Differences in the Percentage of Women Who Agree That These Factors Are Important in Their Business

Percentage of Respondents

Who Agree/Strongly Agree

This Is Important Factor Farm Non-farm Probability I can apply talents and skills directly 88 94 0.67 I feel secure in my employment 72 94 0.01 I can make key decisions 50 32 0.25 I don't have to make key decisions 19 36 0.04 I can meet current financial needs 75 88 0.29 1 can try new ways of doing things 81 97 0.09 I can participate in environmental

conservation programs tag and nonag) 76 72 0.76 I am excited about my work 84 88 0.88 I have flexible work hours 70 56 0.25 I can balance my work and free time 57 79 0.09 1 can be involved in my community 86 79 0.10 I improve my standard of living 73 79 0.82 I can pass on the business to a family

member 66 16 0.01 I can provide jobs for my community 50 42 0.71 Table 4. Rankings of Farm and Non-farm Women's Problems Faced in Business Factors Farm Non-farm Networking with others 12 2 Finding good information about best

management practices for my business 10 7 Finding information about government

programs related to my work 7 4 Qualifying for government programs

related to my business 2 3 Knowing where/how to

market my products 9 11 Keeping up with environmental

regulations regarding my business 5 9 Keeping financial records 5 7 Finding/ affording a good lawyer 4 4 Keeping good employees 1 11 Handling my cash flow 8 6 Gaining access to credit 13 9 Completing loan forms and other

important paperwork 11 13 Being respected in my industry as a

female business person 3 1 Table 5. Significant Differences in the Percentage of Women Who Agree That These Factors Are Problems in Their Business

Percentage of Respondents

Who Agree/Strongly Agree

This Is a Problem

Farm/Business Other Factor Owner/Operators Women Probability Networking with others 15 27 0.29 Finding good information about

best management practices

for my business 20 17 0.26 Finding information about

government programs related

to my work 32 23 0.47 Qualifying for government

programs related to my

business 41 24 0.32 Knowing where/how to market

my products 29 14 0.26 Keeping up with environmental

regulations regarding my

business 34 14 0.15 Keeping financial records 34 17 0.05 Finding/ affording a good

lawyer 34 23 0.30 Keeping good employees 52 14 0.01 Handling my cash flow 29 19 0.59 Gaining access to credit 11 14 0.30 Completing loan forms and

other important paperwork 16 5 0.49 Being respected in my industry

as a female business person 39 36 0.90