Evaluation of the impact of reclamation regulations and guidelines on ecological rehabilitation practices at the Estevan surface coal mines (1996-1999), Saskatchewan.

Abstract

Surface mining across the world has left a legacy of highly disturbed landscapes. In a bid to reverse the trend of degradation, various jurisdictions promulgated legislation and guidelines requiring mine operators to rehabilitate disturbed lands for productive uses. This paper examines the impact of regulations and guidelines on rehabilitation practices at the Bienfait, Boundary Dam and Utility Mines around Estevan, Saskatchewan between 1996 and 1999. This is a unique case of mine rehabilitation with only one mining company and guidelines designed for the site-specific conditions of the area. The paper assesses reclamation success using both regulatory and social indicators. The findings revealed that out of the 734.81 ha of land disturbed during the years under review, 60% has been successfully graded and 17% seeded. Both residents and regulators agreed that there has been improvement in the quality, aesthetic, and safety outcomes of restoration. However, the historical period studied revealed that rehabilitation practices lagged behind the rate of mining due to climate, personnel and equipment problems. Generally, Saskatchewan Environment, the regulator, and local residents rated reclamation work as average because they considered that it was not progressing fast enough.

Partout dans le monde, l'exploitation de mines a ciel ouvert a laisse en heritage des paysages fortement perturbes. Dans une tentative de renverser cette tendance, diverses competences ont promulgue des lois et des lignes directrices exigeant des exploitants miniers qu'ils remettent en etat les terres pertur-bees a des fins productives. L'auteur de cet article examine l'incidence des lois et des lignes directrices sur les pratiques de remise en etat, entre 1996 et 1999, des mines Bienfait, Boundary Dam et Utility Mine a Estevan, en Saskatchewan. II s'agit d'un cas exceptionnel de remise en etat de mines touchant une meme entreprise miniere et ou les lignes directrices ont ete concues expressement selon les conditions de la region propres au site. L'auteur de l'article evalue le succes de la remise en etat du terrain en se servant d'indicateurs de reglemen-tation et d'indicateurs sociaux. Les resultats revelent que, des 743,81 hectares de terres perturbees au cours des annees a l'etude, 60 p. 100 ont ete niveles avec succes et 17 p. 100, ensemencees. Les residents comme les organismes de reglementation ont convenu qu'il y avait eu une amelioration de la qualite, de l'esthetique et de la securite a la suite de la remise en etat. Toutefois, au cours de la periode a l'etude, on a constate que les pratiques de remise en etat accusaient un certain retard par rapport aux activites minieres en raison de problemes lies au climat, au manque de personnel et d'equipement. De maniere generale, Saskatchewan Environment and Resource Management, l'organisme de reglemen-tation, ainsi que les residents, estimaient qu'ils etaient moyennement satisfaits des travaux de remise en etat, car ils consideraient ceux ci n'avancaient pas suffisamment rapidement.

Keywords

Ecological rehabilitation, social evaluation, reclamation regulation, reclamation guidelines, post-reclamation evaluation

Introduction

For decades, government regulatory agencies across the world have grappled with the daunting task of formulating and enforcing regulations and guidelines to address the problem of open pits and massive spoils at mine sites. In China, wasteland produced by mining activities alone is 20,000 ha per annum (Marrs and Miao 2000). This is expected to exceed 33,000 hectares in the near future. Coal mining operations in the United States have disturbed approximately 2.4 million ha of land since 1930 (Skousen et al. 1998). The contentious issue is that mining operators desire to close mines and do not want to engage in a perpetual legacy of repair and maintenance. Regulators on the other hand, resent the situation that exists in Great Britain and elsewhere, where hundreds of hectares of former coal lands are either undergoing land degradation or act as a perpetual cost against host communities. Within close proximity of mine lands, such communities are required to deal with thinning soils, cracked drains and poor vegetation growth (Haigh 2002). These controversies of mine degradation and reclamation share similarities with challenges in Estevan, Saskatchewan, Canada.

Estevan is a major service centre for a large agricultural and mineral-based region of southern Saskatchewan, about 200 km southeast of Regina (Figure 1). It is often described as the 'Power Centre of the Province' due to the large lignite coal deposits in the area. A total of 5,582,845 tonnes of coal was produced in 1996 at the Boundary Dam, Utility and Bienfait mines (City of Estevan 2000). The area of land disturbed around Estevan is related to the magnitude of coal production. Disturbed areas are characterized by spoil piles (piles of overburden material), box cuts (which result in high walls on both sides of the cut) and poor vegetation growth. Public outcry for a quality environment and long-term sustain-ability of stressed lands led to an overhaul of obsolete acts and the formulation of site-specific guidelines in 1993 and new regulations in 1996. The guidelines require the mine operator to stabilize the spoil piles and to undertake reclamation simultaneous with mining operations. The regulations provide Saskatchewan Environment (SE) with the legislative authority to force industry to clean up the existing backlog of disturbed lands in the area. Currently, both guidelines and regulations apply to rehabilitation practices in the Estevan area. However, the effectiveness of such regulations and guidelines in compelling compliance is questionable. Stokstad (1998) observes that while national programs to clean up abandoned mines have existed for decades, this process has been haphazard and inefficient.

[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]

Against such a backdrop, this study assesses environmental performance of mine operators in the Estevan area. The overall objective of the paper is twofold; (1) to comment on the impacts of regulation and guidelines on ecological rehabilitation practices by Luscar Mine, the only mining company near Estevan, Saskatchewan; and (2) to examine the perceptions of regulators and local residents regarding the extent of rehabilitation practices in the area. In addition, this paper outlines the strengths and weaknesses in the application of legislation and guidelines in surface mine reclamation in the Estevan area between 1996-1999.

Frequently, the terms "restoration," "reclamation," and "rehabilitation" are used interchangeably. Others argue that the terms have distinct meanings. The Society for Ecological Restoration defines restoration as a reinstatement of the original (pre-mining) ecosystem in all its structural, functional and productive aspects or a process of restoring nature to a perfect condition (SERM 1996, see also, Higgs 2003). Some scholars (e.g. Harker et al. 1993) argue that "true" restoration is almost impossible to achieve for both technical and economic reasons. Reclamation refers to the process of returning the mined site to a condition capable of supporting the same, or similar, organisms that existed prior to mining (Friedlander 2001). Allen et al. (2000) contend that rehabilitation involves creating an alternative ecosystem following disturbance, different from the original and having utilitarian (ecologically improved and socially acceptable) rather than conservation values.

These distinctions have caused disagreement among environmental practitioners and mine operators. Mine operators argue that they can minimize surface-mining impacts by restoring mine lands to their original contours, while creating loosely graded top soil for non-compacted soil growth and planting native and non-competitive ground covers and trees that will form early succession species for wildlife--reclamation, by the foregoing definitions. Environmentalists, however, have questioned the validity of these arguments on the grounds that although it is aesthetically pleasing, the rolling, grassy hills do not offer the same economic, environmental and ecosystem benefits as the original forests or grasslands they replace, especially with respect to preserving wildlife habitats and the ability to capture carbon from the atmosphere.

Beyond the definitional quagmire of ecological rehabilitation, it is important to note the progress that has been made in formulating acts, regulations and guidelines for reclamation and the impacts of these regulations on site-specific reclamation practices.

Evolution of Reclamation Acts in Canada

Regulations are enacted by parliament and generally have some degree of force in law. They set out conditions for permit approval. Guidelines may be informal directives to assist agencies in applying regulations and reaffirming policy statements, or non-statutory requirements. By their nature, guidelines are not legally binding in and of themselves. Under an act or regulation, the proponent may be required to follow a guideline, which must usually be attached as an appendix since guidelines tend to change over time.

Alberta was the first jurisdiction to develop reclamation regulatory policy with the enactment of the 1963 Surface Reclamation Act (Alberta Environment 1999). In 1973, the concept of conservation was introduced in the Land Surface Conservation and Reclamation Act. This Act required operators to submit their plans for conservation and reclamation and obtain approval from the Lands Conservation and Reclamation Council (LCRC) prior to the development of a project (Government of Alberta 2003). This Act was further amended in 1978 to legally require operators to use conservation methods such as stripping topsoil and storing it separately for later replacement. In 1993, the Environmental Protection and Enhancement Act and the Conservation and Reclamation Regulation were enacted to replace the Land Surface Conservation and Reclamation Act. In addition, between 1978 and 1994 a program was put in place to clean up sites on municipal and crown lands that were disturbed and abandoned prior to formulating the legislation. Similar reclamation acts were enacted in other provinces.

In Ontario, the Mining Act of 1990 is generally administered by the Ontario Ministry of Northern Development and Mines and Part VII is administered specifically by the "Director of Rehabilitation" within that Ministry. The Act spells out the requirements for mine closure and continual and sequential rehabilitation of mine sites or mine hazards. Among the more notable provisions is subsection 4(1), which generally requires that persons conducting mine rehabilitation comply with the "Mine Rehabilitation Code of Ontario" which includes schedules of the regulations and detailed performance standards relating to the protection of public safety and the environment from risks and hazards posed by various mine features (Wenig and O'Reilly 2005).

British Columbia passed a regulation amending the Mines Regulation Act in March 1969. This legislation was amended further in 1973 to include coal and mineral exploration, sand and gravel pits and rock quarries. The British Columbia Mines Act 1996, requires a mine owner, agent or manager to file a plan outlining the details of the proposed work and a program for conservation of cultural heritage resources and protection of land, watercourses and cultural heritage resources affected by mining (Government of British Columbia 1996).

The Saskatchewan Government introduced the first reclamation requirement under the Mines Regulation Act in 1972. Prior to this--during the 1930s and early 1970s--approximately 2,500 ha of land near Estevan was mined by Prairie Coal Limited (Enzsol 1995). "Unlike today, these properties were mined with no reclamation guidelines in place," Enzsol (1995: 105) asserts. In 1984, the early reclamation requirements, which were part of the permit approval process for mining, were replaced by separate regulation when the Saskatchewan Environment and Public Safety Department implemented the Reclamation Guidelines for the Estevan Area (SERM 1996). This guideline was applied between 1984 and 1992.

Regulations and Guidelines for Estevan

The two main items that have advanced ecological restoration practices in the Estevan area since 1992 are the Mineral Industry Environmental Protection Regulation 1996 (SERM 1996) and the site-specific 1993 Guidelines for the sensitive terrains of Estevan. The regulation states that the decommissioning and reclamation plan must include a procedure, time frame and cost estimate for reclamation and a proposal for the management and administration of the assurance fund. The guideline specifies that the slope of regraded land intended for agriculture should be less than 10% whereas that for end cuts intended for wildlife habitat should be about 20%. In addition to this, 80% of the surface area should be free of drainage water, in order to minimize erosion (SERM 1993). In re-vegetating for agricultural use, good agricultural practices should be followed and self-propagating species of grasses, shrubs and trees should be selected for wildlife use.

Two critical issues arise from the regulations and guidelines for decommissioning and reclamation in the Estevan area. First, mine operators are expected to act according to the 'Precautionary Principle', which stipulates that in the event of doubt about the potential impacts of an action or operation, the company should avoid taking a course of action that may jeopardize long-term viability of species, ecosystems or the health of landowners, employees and local residents. Second, effective evaluation of rehabilitation activities must include scientific, regulatory and social perspectives. Conventional scientific approaches (Marrs and Miao 2000) focus solely on testing soil, water and vegetation parameters. However, studies by Irwin (1995) and Baron et al. (1998) indicate that evaluating landscape change requires an integration of social processes and natural sciences. Irwin (1995: 2) juxtaposes the canons of official science with the canons of citizen science to tell a convincing story about the emergence of a new popular rationality. He argues for a criterion of proof based on "the balance of probabilities" rather than the "beyond all reasonable doubt" standard of state and corporate science. A key component of the balance of probabilities is the incorporation of a social context of judgement. Hence, gathering opinions of local people broadens the scope of who are counted as 'experts' to include beneficiaries of post-rehabilitation land use.

Methodological Approach

This paper assesses the impact of legislation and guidelines on surface mine rehabilitation in the Estevan area of Saskatchewan, by using a set of regulatory (Figure 2) and social criteria. These criteria helped to assess the environmental performance of the mine operator vis-a-vis the recommendations outlined in the 1993 Guidelines and the 1996 Regulations instituted by Saskatchewan Environment (SE). The social criteria are based on local citizens' perceptions of the impact of regulations on reclamation practices. Data were obtained from reclamation reports, aerial photo interpretation and a survey, in 2001, of three actors namely, SE regulators, officials of Luscar Ltd. (the only mining company in Estevan) and local residents. Systematic sampling, beginning with random numbers, was used to select 150 respondents from the Estevan area telephone directory. Two respondents were chosen from the village of Roche Percee, 10 from Bienfait town, 12 from the Rural Municipality of Estevan and 126 from the city of Estevan for a total of 150, in proportion to the 1996 population figures. Of the 150 respondents, 101 took part in the questionnaire-based interviews while 49 participated in the focus group discussions.

Three officials of the mining company who are responsible for reclamation were interviewed and three survey questionnaires were distributed to SE officials of which 93% of the questions were answered. Focus group discussions were used to obtain information on local residents' perceptions of ecological rehabilitation practices in the area. A group of 6 to 8 respondents was engaged in a discussion on the quality and safety outcomes of rehabilitation in the Estevan area. Although the approach for the interviews and focus group discussions differed, they were complementary to each other.

Documentary sources of data and information included Environmental Impact Statements (EIS), Semi-annual Reclamation Reports and SE Annual Reports. The EIS of the Estevan area provided baseline information on the biophysical characteristics of the pre-mining landscape, which is a useful basis for measuring the progress of rehabilitation. The reclamation reports detailed the total hectares of land mined and the techniques employed for restoration. This paper examines large-scale digital orthophoto maps (scale of 1:20,000) of the Bienfait, Boundary Dam and Utility Mines which were produced by Orthoshop, Calgary, Alberta, to show rehabilitated areas and areas of outstanding rehabilitation. This approach was used by Herzog et al. (2001: 96) to evaluate landscape destruction and rehabilitation in Saxony, Eastern Germany.

[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]

Key indices for evaluating rehabilitation practices were adapted from the 1996 Mineral Industry Environmental Protection Regulations and the 1993 Guidelines (Figure 2). The description took into account (1) the hectares for which various reclamation steps were taken; (2) overburden and soil analysis programs and key results; (3) soil amendments applied; (4) hectares of seeding and planting undertaken; (5) results of germination/growth; (6) time frame for completing reclamation; and (7) analysis of successes and failures. Descriptive statistics were employed to depict spatio-temporal variation of the hectares of land disturbed and rehabilitated between 1996 and 1999 at the three mines.

Significant elements for social evaluation of ecological restoration include quality and safety outcomes and the extent of compliance with the regulations. Residents' perceptions concerning the results of rehabilitation practices are rated from excellent (5) to poor (1). Similar ratings for the safety outcomes of rehabilitation vary from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1). This social judgement, as espoused by scholars such as Irwin (1995: 2) and Baron et al. (1998), is important for assessing restoration practices. It is largely based on local people's experiential knowledge of their immediate environment.

Compliance or Non-compliance with Regulation

Luscar Ltd. is required by law to submit a pre-mining and reclamation plan and a proposal for an assurance fund to SE to ensure the decommissioning and reclamation of mining sites. Commenting on the mine plan, an official of SE observed that Luscar Ltd. sets out its reclamation plan in March of every year. Draft plans for mining and restoration and the assurance fund which have been submitted by the management of Luscar Ltd. since 1996, have met standards stipulated in the 1996 regulations and have consequently been approved by the Minister of Environment, Saskatchewan. An interview with SE regulators revealed that the mining company has not defaulted in observing the requirements of the assurance fund. The fund provides security against breach of the permit conditions and rehabilitation requirements.

In order to monitor rehabilitation success, the mining company is required to conduct field evaluations and submit semi-annual reclamation reports to SE. The mining company submitted eight reclamation reports between 1996 and 1999. The reports, supported by air photos, maps and soil and plant surveys, illustrate hectares for which various reclamation steps were undertaken, timing of all reclamation activities, soil amendments applied and the results of seeding. These reports have been reviewed and endorsed by SE officials.

Site-specific Restoration Programs

The issue of environmentally responsible mining in the Estevan area is not whether the mine site will be restored, but the manner in which restoration is accomplished. Luscar Ltd. is required to take measures in dealing with and lessening the environmental impacts of coal mining operations. An interview with officials of Luscar Ltd. revealed that coversoil removal is normally conducted annually, during the unfrozen conditions (summer), and takes place approximately six months ahead of mining.

Currently, coal is mined by a 1,570W Bucyrus-Erie dragline, the Prairie Queen, and 'Big Lou', a giant dragline (MacBean 2001: 4) in a series of parallel cuts--30 m wide strips up to 3.5 km in length. Following coal removal, these pits are subsequently backfilled and reclaimed in a regular manner: reclamation is done simultaneously with mining operation. Overburden excavated from the active cut is used to backfill the pit which is subsequently levelled. In line with the rehabilitation plan, part of the spoil piles of mining has been levelled to the required slope. Soil surveys undertaken by the mining company at the Bienfait, Boundary Dam and Utility Mines indicate that topsoil (A-horizon) materials with depths averaging 10-15 cm are found over the pre-mined lands. The stockpiled soil is then spread on the levelled area and seeded. A selective overburden handling technique' has been incorporated into rehabilitation work at Bienfait, Utility and Boundary Dam mines. According to mine officials, the technique selectively places overburden materials with higher reclamation suitability into the upper portion of the backfill of the mined lands (Luscar Ltd. 1996-2000). Overburden materials (B-horizon) that are not suitable for plant growth are buried deep in the backfilled area.

Site levelling and grading operations are undertaken by bulldozers, scrapers and graders, with the objective of creating 10% slope and a landscape acceptable to the proposed soft land uses: typically agriculture (cropping), wildlife and recreation. Initial box cut and final mine cuts normally retain greater slopes (10 to 20%). An environmental planner of Luscar Ltd. indicated that after coversoiling, the disturbed lands receive another lift in volume, which adds up to approximately 15 cm in thickness after grading and compensates for the metre of coal seam removed. According to the Guidelines, grading of land should occur within two years of the initial disturbance (Luscar Ltd. 1996). Yet, soil replacement on parts of the mine sites of Bienfait, Boundary Dam and Utility mines occurred within three years of initial disturbance. In cases where cover soil was not available at a particular site, engineers resorted to using other alternatives such as transferring cover soil from other sites (Estevan Coal Corporation 1996) instead of using suitable substrates such as residual hay, straw or wood chip. Unless such 'supplier sites' have enough top-soil to offset the deficiency, this practice can have adverse long-term consequences such as nutrient depletion and low vegetative growth.

Revegetation of graded land for agriculture, rangeland and wildlife is a significant part of ecological rehabilitation practices in the Estevan area. Emphasis has been placed on quickly establishing vegetation to control erosion and to achieve a self-sustaining plant cover. Officials of Luscar Ltd. work in close collaboration with personnel of SaskPower's Shand Greenhouse who currently conduct revegetation in the Estevan area (SaskPower is the final custodian of most of the rehabilitated lands in Estevan and owns the coalfields, which are leased to the mining companies for mining operations). In 1999, germination trials were conducted at the greenhouse on five rare native species for Luscar Ltd., including purple coneflower (Echinacea), bird's foot trefoil (Lotus corniculatus), milkwort (Polygala verticillata), salt bush (Baccharis halimifolia) and whorled milkweed (Asclepias syriaca). These species have been used in seeding programs in the Estevan area with 50% survival rates (Luscar Ltd. 2000).

In addition, measures were undertaken to prevent the transfer of contaminated water into the underground water systems and Souris River--the main river that drains the area. The SE-approved dewatering procedure was followed. There was no water discharge from surface impoundment and settling ponds at the Boundary Dam Mine between 1996 and 1997. However, between 1998 and 1999, a total of 899,208 m3 of water was pumped from dewatering wells and settling ponds to approved discharge points. Some of the water was discharged into SaskPower's Shand Cooling Tower in 1999 (Luscar Ltd. 1999). Since this is a closed system, there was no water quality analysis. Quality analysis was, however, conducted on the remaining two-thirds of water discharged during the period. Water samples were collected once a week and analyzed for turbidity and suspended solids (TSS). The average TSS was 28.5 mg/l which was below the legally allowed maximum level of 50mg/l (Table 1). The average TSS for water tested at the Bienfait mine (total of 368,340.6 m3) between 1996 and 1999 was 19.8 mg/l which was below the legally allowed maximum limit of 50 mg/l set by the SE guidelines (Luscar Ltd. 1999). There was no water discharge from settling ponds in 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 (Luscar Ltd. 1996, 1999) at the Utility Mine because settling ponds and wells were not in use.

A comparative study of the three sites revealed that a total of 734.81 ha were mined between 1996 and 1999 in the Estevan area. Out of this figure, 444.03 ha have been successfully reclaimed and decommissioned (Table 2). Thus, 60% of the total area disturbed has been levelled to the acceptable slope of less than 10%. The proportion of levelling is an improvement over the situation that existed before the 1993 Guidelines were developed when virtually nothing was done. However, there was a shortfall in the rate of seeding. Only 17% of the total area disturbed has been seeded which is equivalent to 29% of the total area levelled. The problem is attributed to the harsh climate and soil conditions of the area as well as equipment problems. Nevertheless, portions of the three sites met SE's minimum standards and the mining company has been released from further responsibilities of restoration on these lands.

Overall, Boundary Dam Mine recorded the largest area mined between 1996 and 1999, accounting for 46% of the total area disturbed. Similarly, the area rehabilitated was the highest of the three sites studied. This was due to the commitment of more equipment and personnel to rehabilitation activities during that period, as compared to the other sites. Between two and five bulldozers were used in restoration practices depending on the site-specific requirements of the area. An equal number of personnel was also employed. The Utility Mine recorded the second highest rate of disturbance after Boundary Dam Mine (Table 2). Out of the total area of 208.41 ha mined at the Utility Mine (1996-1999), 136.97 ha have been successfully graded accounting for 31% of total area levelled in the Estevan area.

Table 2 provides a comparison of the rates of disturbance, leveling and seeding among the three mine sites. Bienfait Mine recorded the least amount of area mined (189.13 ha) and restored during the period. The area levelled at the Bienfait Mine accounted for 29% of the total area levelled in the Estevan area. Aerial orthophoto map interpretation confirmed the spatial-temporal variation in the rate of disturbance and rehabilitation at the Boundary Dam, Utility and Bienfait Mines over the years. About 60% of the levelled areas met SE's standards and were released from reclamation obligations. SE inspectors consider the overall rate of leveling as average.

Local Residents' Perceptions of Ecological Rehabilitation

Residents' perceptions of ecological rehabilitation practices are based on knowledge of their immediate surroundings, their observations of and encounters with the local environment through cycling, hiking and hunting, among others. A portion of the residents are either current or retired employees of the mining company and demonstrated practical knowledge of mining and rehabilitation. Residents' perceptions of ecological rehabilitation practices take into consideration safety, soil, vegetation and water quality.

Out of the total number of 101 respondents, 28% rated ecological rehabilitation as excellent and very good. "It looks better, rolling and scenic, especially the area around Boundary Dam," a resident commented. Some of the spoil piles have been levelled, grass is flourishing and the land looks pretty much the same as what existed before disturbance. A local farmer noted that before rehabilitation, it was ugly and barren, and they have become accustomed to the piles for many years. Residents cited lack of extensive woody vegetation cover as a factor that impedes an ecologically diverse and aesthetically pleasing landscape. The benefits of planting trees and shrubs are not often realized until years after the legal responsibility for reclamation has passed.

One-third of the respondents rated rehabilitation as average and the same proportion viewed rehabilitation as either fair or poor (Table 3). Those who had lived in the Estevan area for a short period (1-10 years) rated the quality of rehabilitation work as poor or fair. This is attributed to 'first impression syndrome'. A local resident elaborated, "the nature of the spoils is an eye-sore, this is the first thing visitors see when they come to Estevan." A retail store manager stated categorically, "It is not happening fast enough. There is not an equal digging/ reclaiming ratio." "Some of the spoil piles have been levelled but still there is a lot to be done," a retired miner explained. SE regulators concurred that a serious breach of the 1996 Regulation for the Estevan area is that restoration is approximately two years behind schedule and, if this trend continues, the backlog of rehabilitation will increase.

Safety is very crucial to the success of reclamation. When residents were asked to recount knowledge of cases of death or injury to people who walk into rehabilitated areas, 85% asserted that they do not know of any (Table 4). This category of resident participated in some form of recreational activities in the area. Only 9% complained of a threat to life and wildlife due to occasional depressions and gaseous sinkholes. They reminisced about an incident where two children were gassed to death at an old mine in the 1980s. This incident left an indelible mark on this category of residents. However, officials of the mine emphasized that areas which pose a threat to life have warning signs and security fences to ward off trespassers. The remaining 6% of the respondents had no idea whether the rehabilitated areas pose any serious threat to life since they had not toured any of the areas to verify.

Residents called for effective compliance monitoring on the part of SE regulators. One local resident minced no words when he lamented, "I am tired of over-regulation, enforce the regulations that are in place." Residents are of the opinion that hefty fines or restrictions on further mining until all outstanding rehabilitation is completed will go a long way towards enforcing the regulations. Residents suggested that in case of default on the part of the operator, the province should hire a private agency to level the spoils and plant trees, and the mining company should bear the cost of reclamation. In view of this, residents suggested that a Resident Board or a Committee be formed to bridge the gap between mine executives and locals so that their views can be incorporated into reclamation programs.

Conclusion

This paper comments on a unique case of mine rehabilitation in Estevan, Southern Saskatchewan, where there is only one mining company and the reclamation guidelines are designed for the sensitive terrain and site-specific conditions of the area. The reclamation and licensing guidelines for Estevan provide detailed and systematic directions for reclaiming the three mine sites of Boundary Dam, Bienfait and Utility to a pre-determined land use objective. Site-specific evaluations of rehabilitation work by SE officials give credence to the fact that about 60% of the disturbed area has been leveled and 17% seeded with a seedling survival rate of 50%. Seeding has been difficult due to equipment problems and the harsh physical conditions. This influences the company's willingness and propensity to reclaim on a regular and continuous basis. Generally, SE regulators and residents rated reclamation work as average because it is not progressing fast enough.

In spite of the role of regulatory standards and guidelines for land reclamation in the Estevan area, there is a need for more rigorous research to be conducted into the soil properties in the area, to ascertain the extent of the problem of saline soil, clayey soils and the lack of organic matter. It must be emphasized that the science of mine rehabilitation in the Estevan area should evolve from simple revegetation activities to a discipline more reflective of ecologically sustainable rehabilitation, which will ultimately involve long-term management of the rehabilitated lands.

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RESEARCH NOTES include preliminary or summary descriptions of research methods and/or results that do not yet address their full theoretical, policy or practical implications. The intention is to provide researchers and practitioners with a forum for presenting interesting but preliminary ideas, methodologies, or results in the spirit of fostering reflection and dialogue.

Abednego Aryee is a doctoral candidate in the University of Waterloo--Wilfrid Laurier University Graduate Program in Geography. His dissertation focuses on the impact of Environmental Information Systems and Local Knowledge Systems on community-based agro-forestry management and agro-diversity conservation. He also teaches university courses in Geography part-time. He can be reached at arye0260@wlu.ca Table 1. Boundary Dam and Bienfait Mine Water Discharges, 1996-1999

BOUNDARY DAM MINE BIENFAIT MINE

Total Volume Water Quality Total Volume Water Quality

of Water Analysis (SST) of Water Analysis (SST) YEAR ([m.sup.3]) mg/l, mean values ([m.sup.3]) mg/l, mean values 1996 0 X 184,329.6 28.4 1997 0 X 0 X 1998 608,641 28.5 8,787 14 1999 290,567 X 175,224 17 Total 899,208 28.5 368,340.6 19.8 0 = No water was discharged from the mining area during the reporting period X = No water quality analysis Estevan Coal Corporation 1997 and Luscar Ltd. 1998-2000 Table 2. Boundary Dam, Utility and Bienfait coal mine disturbance and rehabilitation (levelling and seeding), 1996-1999

BOUNDARY DAM MINE UTILITY MINE

Area Area Area Area Area Area

Mined Levelled Seeded Mined Levelled Seeded YEAR (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) (ha) 1996 93.29 42.96 18.20 62.69 15.01 9.45 1997 110.95 104.58 23.36 33.5 22.7 5 1998 46.7 17.56 0.0 21.24 8.50 0 1999 86.33 13.01 0.0 90.98 90.76 28.34 Total 336.27 178.11 41.56 208.41 136.97 42.79

BIEN FAIT MINE

Area Area Area

Mined Levelled Seeded YEAR (ha) (ha) (ha) 1996 36.51 20.98 25.33 1997 47.43 35.35 15.50 1998 43.55 40.68 2.20 1999 61.64 31.94 0.0 Total 189.13 128.95 43.03 Source: Luscar Ltd. Reclamation reports, 1996-1999. Table 3. Responses to the question; how would you rate overall rehabilitation work around Estevan? Ratings Frequency Percentage Excellent 6 6 Very Good 22 22 Average 37 36 Fair 18 18 Poor 18 18 Total 101 100 (Poor=1 Fair=2 Average=3 Very Good=4 Excellent=5) Source: field survey, Estevan 2001. Table 4. Responses to the question: do you think rehabilitated areas have been made safe enough for human and wildlife access? Ratings Frequency Percentage Strongly Agree 8 8 Agree 68 67 Not Sure 15 15 Disagree 8 8 Strongly Agree 2 2 Total 101 100 (Poor=1 Fair=2 Average=3 Very Good=4 Excellent=5) Source: field survey, Estevan, 2001.