ABSTRACT. Sustainable development principles reaching many spheres
of human activities, public buildings refurbishment is not an exemption
in this case. Buildings refurbishment supports excellent opportunities
to reduce energy consumption in buildings as well as encourages other
sustainable refurbishment principles implementation--citizens'
healthcare, environment protection, rational resources use, information
about sustainable refurbishment dissemination and stakeholders
groups' awareness. During the pilot refurbishment FP-6 project
Brita in PuBs, authors of this article have developed conceptual
sustainable public buildings refurbishment model. Model was created
basing on sustainable development principles, their consideration in
decision making process and model efficiency influencing factors. In
order to demonstrate models' application possibilities following
the healthcare principle, practical case study of Vilnius Gediminas
Technical University main building pollution mapping is given at the end
of this article.
KEYWORDS: Sustainable development; Building refurbishment;
Healthcare; FP-6 Project Brita in PuBs
KONCEPCINIS DARNAUS VISUOMENINIU PASTATU ATNAUJINIMO MODELIS
SANTRAUKA
Darnios pletros principai skverbiasi i daugeli veiklos krypciu,
neaplenkdami ir visuomeniniu pastatu atnaujinimo proceso. Pastatu
atnaujinimas--tai puiki galimybe ne tik sumazinti suvartojamos pastate
energijos apimtis, bet ir uztikrinti kitus darnios renovacijos
principus--rupinimasi gyventoju sveikata, aplinkos tausojima, racionalu
istekliu naudojima, taip pat ir informacijos apie darnia pastatu
renovacija prieinamuma. Vykdant demonstracini FP-6 projekta Brita in
PuBs, straipsnio autoriai sukure koncepcini darnios visuomeniniu pastatu
renovacijos modeli, kuriame atsizvelgiama i darnios pletros principus,
ju taikyma priimant sprendimus ir modelio efektyvuma veikiancius
veiksnius. Siekiant pademonstruoti modelio realizavimo galimybes,
paskutiniame straipsnio skyriuje rupinimosi sveikata principas
iliustruojamas renovuojamo VGTU centrinio pastato uzterstumo zemelapio
sudarymu.
1. INTRODUCTION
The building sector accounts for 40% of the final energy
consumption in Lithuania and EU countries (Statistics Lithuania, 2006;
Eurostat, 2007). Housing, working and leisure places lightening,
heating, cooling and water heating energy consumption is higher than in
transport or even industrial sectors. Furthermore, this consumption
continues to grow as well as buildings energy proportion in final
consumption and C[O.sub.2] emission to environment increase.
Recently the issues considering climate change often discussed in
Europe, much attention is paid on energy consumption questions. These
problems inspired new strategic documents as Buildings Energy Efficiency
Directive, Green Book considering energy use efficiency, Energy
Efficiency Action Plans and European Energetic Tools establishment.
The aforementioned documents emphasize the importance of
understanding that buildings refurbishment not only decreases energy
consumption but also improves whole condition of the building: its
exploitation, noise insulation conditions, exterior, and comfort;
prolongs buildings life cycle, increases value of the buildings, reduces
negative impact to environment and guarantees healthy living and working
conditions. Satisfaction of these requirements is obligatory in
sustainable refurbishment provision.
Sustainable refurbishment initiatives are supported by European
Commission. Vilnius Gediminas Technical University participates in the
pilot FP-6 buildings retrofit project Brita in PuBs (Bringing Retrofit
Innovation to Application in Public Buildings). The Brita in PuBs
project on Eco-buildings aims at increasing the market penetration of
innovative and effective retrofit solutions to improve energy efficiency
and implement renewables, with moderate additional costs (Brita in PuBs
project, http://www.brita-in-pubs.eu/). The sustainable refurbishment
model developed under participation in this project is introduced in
this article. In order to demonstrate models' application
possibilities following the healthcare principle, practical case study
of Vilnius Gediminas Technical University main building pollution
mapping is given at the end of this article.
2. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT PRINCIPLES AND MODELS OF BUILDINGS
REFURBISHMENT
The energy requirements of present civilizations are a key issue
for sustainable development. Regarding the limited supply of
nonrenewable energy resources and the emission of greenhouse gases
affecting global climate, it had been postulated that a sustainable
energy system cannot be reached merely by substituting less sustainable
resources by more sustainable ones, but also requires an overall
reduction of present energy consumption levels, primarily in
industrialized countries (Imboden and Jaeger, 1999; Imboden, 2000).
The issues of sustainable refurbishment have been intensively
tackled for years in the Central Europe and other countries: Austria,
Switzerland, Germany and the Netherlands. Scandinavian countries,
though, have already developed different strategies of integral
refurbishment in Denmark, Sweden, etc. The field of housing structures
refurbishment is taking a central place in the efforts for integral
refurbishment and revitalization of larger areas, especially in larger
housing estates (Ruano, 2002).
According to Sobotka and Wyatt (1998), the rules of sustainable
development must refer to the building sector as a building object in
its life cycle (regarded as product life chains), starting with
obtaining raw materials for the production of the building itself and
their evaluation, through to demolition of the building.
Sunikka (2003) concludes that the real potential for sustainable
building and C[O.sub.2] reduction lies in management of the existing
stock of residential buildings. According to Papadopoulos et al. (2002),
Gorgolewski (1995), Hong et al. (2006) the energy efficient
refurbishment of existing buildings is an important tool for the
reduction of energy consumption in the building sector, the improvement
of prevailing indoor thermal comfort conditions and also for the
improvement of environmental conditions in urban areas. At the same
time, it is technical, economic and social problem posed by the manner
in which many cities have been built and the restrictions imposed by
economic constrains that tantalize most countries in South-Eastern
Europe.
Recently, more attention is paid to sustainable, complex
refurbishment satisfying integrated social, technical, economic,
ecological needs of various stakeholders groups. Sobotka and Wyatt
(1998) apply the principles of the "sustainable development"
to refurbishment of panel buildings. Keeping and Shiers (1996) are
considering environment friendly "green refurbishment" of
commercial buildings, Kincaid (2000) reviews adaptability potential for
buildings and infrastructure in sustainable cities.
Baldwin (1996) presents the following main goals of sustainable
building on the basis of a document written in the UK containing
indicators of sustainable development:
1. Minimization of climatic changes and risks to human health and
biodegradation in consequence of economic activities, that is:
* to reduce climatic changes through the reduction of C[O.sub.2]
emissions to the atmosphere due to energy consumption in buildings;
* to reduce emission of chemical compounds which cause thinning of
the ozone layer;
* to minimize waste through:
--recycling or re-use of materials,
--collecting and segregating office and domestic recyclable waste
such as paper and plastic;
--elimination or reduction of waste on construction sites;
* to take care of wildlife habitats through preventing building on
ecologically valuable sites and to protect and enhance local ecology; to
build in areas of little ecological value; to re-use existing buildings,
perhaps changing their function;
* to take care of the indoor environment in buildings, eliminating
the risk of health loss by better air ventilation of space, minimizing
sickness rate with respiratory system diseases, avoiding potentially
harmful building materials, minimizing noise, etc.;
* to protect against radioactivity (radon).
2. Optimal use of non-renewable (finite) resources, i.e. energy,
land, minerals and other natural resources.
3. Employing renewable resources such as solar energy for heating
of houses, wind and water for energy accumulation. Use wood as the main
building material.
4. Building such objects which will enable future generations to
meet their needs in the domain of quality, durability, flexibility,
adaptability and town planning.
According to Keeping and Shiers (1996) the benefits of "green
refurbishment" include:
* lower energy costs through the use of simpler, low-tech heating
and power installations;
* lower maintenance costs due to simple building services, which
are easily accessible, and low-tech equipment, which is cheaper to
repair or replace; and
* "healthier" buildings have been demonstrated to reduce
absenteeism.
Sitar et al. (2006) emphasize the following integrated sustainable
refurbishment principles:
* improvement of living conditions and provision of user-friendly
apartments, increasing flexibility of the whole building concept and its
parts, according to the current and future needs of inhabitants;
* decrease energy use and related building operational expenses;
* increased use of environment-friendly materials and renewable
energy sources;
* economically favorable and innovative planning, building and
using measures.
The aforementioned definitions and factors state that sustainable
refurbishment is mostly related to technical-ecological aspects of
building life cycle. Definitely it also involves satisfaction of social
(healthy housing, etc.) and economic (energy saving, low maintenance
costs, etc.) needs. Integration of these needs makes the concept of
sustainable development implemented.
There are much more factors influencing refurbishment
sustainability than was mentioned here. The concept of sustainable
refurbishment should cover and integrate all the possible economic,
social and environmental needs. It makes sustainable refurbishment very
sophisticated. Therefore, recent papers adopt decisions on economically
efficient refurbishment to new technology methods: Adeli (1998) applies
general theories and techniques of expert systems to construction,
Henket (1990) suggests a theoretical model of several modular stages in
the decision process, Reddy et al. (1993) offer a frame-based decision
support model for building refurbishment, Rosenfiels and Shohet (1999),
Lavy and Shohet (2007)--decision support model for semi-automated
selection of renovation alternatives, Alanne (2004) proposes a
multi-criteria "knapsack" model to help designers select the
most feasible refurbishment actions in the conceptual phase of a
refurbishment project, Dascalaki and Balaras (2004)--new XENIOS
methodology for assessing refurbishment scenarios and the potential of
application of renewable energy sources and rational use of energy in
the hotel sector. Kaklauskas and Gulbinas (2005), Kaklauskas et al.
(2005, 2006), Zavadskas and Kaklauskas (2000), Zavadskas et al. (1997,
2001a, 2004, 2008), Antucheviciene et al. (2006), Saparauskas and
Turskis (2006), Banaitiene et al. (2008) integrate various IT supported
knowledge management, decision support, expert models for
buildings' life cycle management as well as refurbishment
projects' assessment and optimization.
Recently more attention is paid on negative pollution effects
decreasing measures. Kaklauskas and Zavadskas (2007) presented decision
support system for innovation with special emphasis on pollution,
Zavadskas et al. (2007a)--research on modelling and forecasting of a
rational and sustainable development of Vilnius with emphasis on
pollution, Zavadskas et al. (2007b) performed Vilnius urban
sustainability assessment with an emphasis on pollution.
Numerous sustainable buildings refurbishment models are proposed in
the literature. Among the most typical approaches there are development
models for energy efficient renovation, which through the use of new
materials and the testing of new techniques also support different
branches of the construction industry. Siller et al. (2007) presents the
model describing the temporal development of the Swiss building stock
and its energy demand due to heating and hot water generation. The
building stock is characterized by the energy reference area (ERA),
which is a measure for the effective heated area. In the renovation
sub-model every building (represented by the corresponding ERA) is
subject to a sequence of renovations, which are determined by the
renovation period and the fraction of realized renovations [f.sub.r].
Sitar et al. (2006) considered the model of sustainable renovation
of a multi-apartment building. The sustainable renovation of a building
is presented in two scenarios, in which an energy efficient renovation
examines the connection between possibilities of architectural design,
renovation technology, and energy efficiency for the heating of the
building.
Van der Flier and Thomsen (2005) presented analytical model which
starts from the definition of renovation as "transformation
(process) of the physical, functional, financial, architectural and
ecological characteristics of a building or project (product) to realize
a comprehensive and useful extension of the lifespan". It takes two
steps: the first one is a description of the initial situation and the
objectives of the participants and a description of the renovation
process and product. Second step is an assessment of the results by
means of the evaluation criteria effectiveness of the process (goal
attainment), efficiency of the product (cost-benefit relation) and
legitimacy of both process and product (support and acceptance from
participants).
Caccavelli and Gugerli (2002) presented refurbishment decision
making model for office buildings refurbishment under TOBUS project.
Model includes building type, various data analysis, refurbishment and
modernization alternatives selection, decision making process, actions
plan and refurbishment strategy development, implementation phases.
European Commission (2003) initiated FP-5 Sustainable refurbishment
project SUREURO. SUREURO has developed models and systems that provide
housing organisations, interested parties; local authorities, town
planners, construction companies etc, opportunities to perform
refurbishment processes within a normal time schedule and budget. The
SUREURO models and systems offer users considerable environmental
improvement and energy savings. The effort of SUREURO is to combine an
overview of usable and available SUREURO models and systems and the
context on which housing people can use these tools and, furthermore,
what kind of management and participation skills are required in order
to be successful. In proposed sustainable refurbishment model
Sustainable Process Management connects the key topics Property and
Facility Management, Strategic Management and Cooperation and
Participation Management and follows principles of sustainable
development: social, cultural, environmental and economic.
Other sustainable refurbishment models are based on Building Life
Cycle Analysis and costs management. For example, project SAVE
"Refurbishment of Buildings at High Quality and with controlled
costs" (2005) considers an integrated planning of the
refurbishment-process, on the other hand, enables an economic
optimisation in terms of the whole lifecycle-costs (LCC) of the
building. Integrated planning is defined as a concept with LCC
assessment as the core element, which is; however, open for additional
quality related criteria depending on the preference and the framework
conditions of the investor.
It can be summarized that sustainable refurbishment is significant
problem in current buildings stock taking much scientists attention as
well as European Commission initiatives. Sustainable refurbishment is
widely discussed in the literature and various models and decision
making tools proposed. Indeed in this article conceptual sustainable
refurbishment model presented by authors synthesizes various sustainable
refurbishment elements and new refurbishment aspects to be considered in
sustainable refurbishment development.
3. THE CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF SUSTAINABLE BUILDINGS REFURBISHMENT
The main results expected from public buildings refurbishment are:
* Energy savings;
* Increase of comfort;
* Healthy working environment assurance;
* Extension of building life cycle;
* Economized exploitation;
* Environmental protection.
Basing on aforementioned expected results and the general
sustainable refurbishment principles authors propose sustainable
refurbishment model where main factors influencing models
efficiency--macro and micro environment, buildings refurbishment
decisions making groups--are additionally considered. Model also
involves decision making process and sustainable refurbishment
information dissemination in all decision making stages (see Figure 1).
Elements of proposed model are further discussed.
Sustainable refurbishment principles. Sustainable refurbishment
must reconcile further dimensions:
* social (collaboration, public awareness and education, social
safety, etc.);
* ecological (ecological construction materials, energy, waste,
noise, land use, heath, air quality, etc.);
[FIGURE 1 OMITTED]
* economic (cost-efficient price, fair price and good service,
energy saving reliability, etc.);
* cultural (cultural heritage, behavioural norms, etc.);
* architectural (comfort, aesthetics, decoration, environment,
buildings purposes matching exterior, etc.);
* technical (innovative HVAC technologies, energy saving
technologies, etc.).
All the above mentioned dimensions are closely related,
complementing each other and influence general refurbishment efficiency.
Sustainability dimensions are inseparably connected, i.e. usage of
innovative technologies in building refurbishment can satisfy ecological
and economic needs, or cultural and architectural dimensions encourage
social needs satisfaction.
Sustainable building refurbishment should be implemented basing on
the aforementioned principles.
Citizen's healthcare principle. Safe buildings environment
must be ensured. It means taking care about air quality in premises,
lightening, control of noise levels and water pollution by chemical
substances, etc. Good air quality in premises can noticeably improve
living quality, especially for people with allergic diseases. In order
to ensure healthy living and working conditions it is necessary to take
care both of indoor microclimate and external environment. General
parameters determining indoor microclimate to be controlled before and
after refurbishment are: air velocity, humidity, dew point, lightening,
air circulation velocity, acoustics, and temperature. In order to ensure
healthy external environment, substances quantity in the air must be
controlled: sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particular matters,
ozone. Exceeding norms substances quantities in the air can encourage
some kinds of illnesses.
Effective energy use principle. Particularly energy consumption
encourages environmental problems i.e. global warming, acid rain. In
order to ensure energy efficiency in buildings modernization and
refurbishment main attention must be paid on buildings insulation,
heating, cooling, conditioning, lightening systems design. The best
results usually achieved when modern innovative energy saving measures
in buildings refurbishment applied: buildings insulation by innovative
materials (e.g. Erhorn-Kluttig and Erhorn, 2007), energy efficient
windows (e.g. Engelund, 2007; James and Bahaj, 2005), hybrid ventilation
(e.g. Jicha and Charvat, 2007), natural lightening (e.g. Athanassakos,
2007), buildings heating and conditioning by solar energy, solar
headers, solar batteries (Voss, 2000; Ferrari and Adhikari, 2007),
passive solar energy using buildings heating systems (Buvik and Hestnes,
2007), heating pumps.
Rational resources use principle. Sustainable refurbishment should
encourage efficient construction materials and natural resources use as
well as extension of building life cycle and environment reaching waste
quantities decrease. Energy efficient technologies in construction can
both decrease greenhouse effect encouraging environmental pollution and
reduce total life cycle costs. Accordingly solar energy technologies
help to decrease the pollution and resources use.
Construction waste transportation and utilization increases
additional costs of construction companies and government. Contrarily,
waste decrease during building life cycle ensures construction companies
and government costs savings both in short and long time perspectives.
Waste minimizing has more positive effects. Part of waste (i.e.
concrete) can be reprocessed and reused. Bricks and metals can be used
even without reprocessing. It can be summarized that waste decrease
encourages contractors and countries resources savings and ensures
ecological environment protection.
Environment conservation (responsibility) principle. Refurbished
buildings negative impact to environment should be minimized as
possible. Aforementioned refurbishment measures, such as harmful
substances quantities control in external environment, innovative energy
saving technologies, etc. ensure environment conservation. Very
important measure in this case--renewable energy resources use.
Affordability principle. Accordingly to sustainable development
principles, buildings refurbishment encouraging environment conservation
and favourable living conditions must be affordable to people and not
too expensive (Chwieduk, 2003). Dissemination about refurbishment is
wide, labour--intensive and involving numerous functions activity. In
information dissemination processes all the participants from
municipalities, designers, contractors, politicians, building owners and
users--all the stakeholders those are directly involved in problem
solution--must be incorporated. Information dissemination measures and
channels should be selected in accordance to information type and
expected target group (Project BRITA in PuBs, 2006a). Possible
dissemination channels: collaboration networks, information booklets
sent by e-mail, web sites, internet tools, professional magazines,
newspapers, media (radio, television, news), seminars, workshops for
construction professionals, learning programmes, qualification courses,
distance learning systems, etc.
Decision making process. In order to design and implement buildings
refurbishment basing on sustainable development principles it is
necessary to follow these principles from idea till implementation.
Suitable decisions must be made starting from projecting stage.
Furthermore, information character should change in dependence on
decision making phase--one type of information is needed in the initial
information collection stage and another at the end of decision
implementation stage.
Public buildings refurbishment process, starting from the idea and
ending with implementation, is quite long and can be divided into four
main phases.
First phase--data and information collection, aims and tasks
determination, problem formulation. At the initial phase refurbishment
purposes, tasks, results, main project participants, their aims and
their relations are determined, building's type defined, analysis
of refurbishment necessity performed. The reasons for refurbishment can
be various--building's physical depreciation, standards and
requirements failure, building's moral depreciation, aims to reduce
energy consumption, improve internal environment quality, buildings
failure to satisfy users needs, etc.
When refurbishment reasons are clarified, further activities to
achieve the main tasks are discussed. It must be decided if the total
refurbishment of the building is needed or just partly modernization
available. It is obvious, however, that aims determination and
projecting stages decisions also influence construction and usage
stages, their processes and decision making. For this reason in this
phase various decision making groups' dissemination about
sustainable refurbishment principles is crucial. In this phase the
general information about energy saving, technical information about
innovative technologies and information about refurbishment is costs the
most needed (Project BRITA in PuBs, 2006b).
Decision modelling phase. After refurbishment aims and the need for
refurbishment defined, the next and very important phase is decision
modeling. Information is analyzed, models formed, evaluation criteria
selected and alternatives are distinguished in this phase.
Decision making means the selection of the best alternative from
numerous alternatives. Buildings' refurbishment analysis and
decision making is sophisticated because of many possible alternatives
appearing in aims establishment, projecting, and construction, usage
stages. These alternatives sometimes even not interact. In order to
create optimal refurbishment strategy all refurbishment stakeholders
groups needs must be considered. Accordingly, refurbishment alternatives
must be analyzed basing on many criteria (Zavadskas et al., 2001b;
Banaitiene et al., 2008). In this phase the information about already
implemented refurbishment projects, best practice examples, projects
strengths and weaknesses is needed.
Decision selection phase. The main aim of this phase is to select
correct alternative, evaluate expected results and make the final
decision. In order to choose the best decision (alternative) methods of
multiple criteria analysis as well as experts' decisions and
advances can be applied. In order to optimize the best decision
(alternative) selection, intelligent technologies and systems can be
used--decision support systems, expert systems, best practice data
bases, etc.
Implementation phase. Implementation phase is the last phase of
decision making process. The decision is transferred to implementers and
the examination if the best alternative was selected is made.
Model efficiency influencing factors. Three main structural
elements influencing models' effectiveness and implementation
efficiency are distinguished:
* macro environment;
* micro environment;
* participating in decision making process stakeholders'
groups.
Macro environmental influence on sustainable buildings
refurbishment. The highest level influencing public buildings, their
construction and refurbishment efficiency is macro level. In this level
buildings refurbishment is influenced by social, political, economic,
cultural, scientific, technical and other factors. In some
circuimstances each group of mentioned factors can be crutial and
refurbishment project can fail. In order to avoid negative impacts, it
is important not to separate buildings refurbishment consideration
processes from environmental conditions and their changes.
Social factors (living conditions and standards, educational
background, labour force regulating legal acts, health protection,
public organizations, media, citizens attitudes to renovation,
innovations in refurbishment process etc.) are influencing stakehoders
aims and their capabilities. Buildings refurbishment implementation is
closely related with countries and public interests (economic,
supplementary activities, social, environment protection and other
requirements implementation in country, regional and municipality
levels).
Culture (literacy, cultural traditions, religion, cultural needs,
quality and working conditions requirements etc.) is influencing
stakehoders requirements and their aims.
Science and technologies (fundamental and utilitarian researches
development level, information technologies and computarization level,
industrial and manufacturing technologies level, communication, etc.)
influence buildings refurbishment process' efficiency, state
requirements to its participators.
Natural and ecological factors (temperature, precipitation,
humidity, landscape and topograpfy, natural resources, water, water
resources and soil quality, sanitary requirements to environment, nature
protection, ecological conditions and their changes, etc.) are
influencing refurbishment efficiency because the requirements to the
particular stages should be concidered.
Political decisions (regional cohesion programmes, preferential
credits, governmental orders, dotations, subsidies, construction
activities reglamenting documents, law changes, etc.) have big influence
on buildings refurbishment efficiency. Public buildings managers have
opportunities to increase energy use efficiency, get refurbishment
projects financing encouraging energy resources and energy savings. In
turn it can influence refurbishment projects quantities in all the
country.
Micro environmental influence to sustainable buildings
refurbishment. The second level factors making influence on buildings
construction as well as refurbishment efficiency are micro environmental
factors. These factors are influenced by macro level factors. For
example, taxation system in macro level directly influencing
construction materials and services prices in micro level. Government
attitude to construction activities (various legal acts, taxes
exemptions, dotations, subsidies etc.) influence construction as well as
refurbishments processes efficiency.
Public buildings refurbishment decisions, sustainable development
principles implementation are effected by various micro level factors:
* buildings depreciation level;
* buildings obsolescence;
* quality of premises;
* facilities management;
* innovative technologies use;
* innovative technologies supply;
* dissemination about innovative technologies;
* refurbishment process financing;
* information systems, etc.
Stakeholders groups participating in public buildings refurbishment
and their relations. There are many stakeholders participating in public
buildings refurbishment decision making process:
* municipal technical personnel (usually named building
administrators);
* municipal technical supervisors;
* buildings designers;
* contractors;
* buildings users;
* politicians;
* society.
Aforementioned groups are making refurbishment decisions; hereby
their dissemination about sustainable refurbishment principles is very
important. Also it is crucial to ensure this information to reach them.
Different knowledge is needed to different stakeholders groups
participating in the refurbishment process.
The part of above proposed model is illustrated by pollution maps
case study.
4. CASE STUDY
In Brita in Pubs Project the pilot retrofit of 9 demonstration
public buildings in the four participating European regions (North,
Central, South, East) was implemented. In Lithuania the main building of
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University was renovated.
In order to analyze environment pollution in refurbished buildings
environment and to measure pollution influence on users' health,
examples of pollution maps were created. The USA Environment Protection
Agency (EPA) methodology was used for this purpose (US EPA, 2006). Air
Quality Index (AQI) was calculated and basing on it the map of pollution
impact on human health was developed.
The higher the AQI value, the greater the level of air pollution
and the greater the health concern. For example, an AQI value of 50
represents good air quality with little potential to affect public
health, while an AQI value over 300 represents hazardous air quality.
An AQI value of 100 generally corresponds to the national air
quality standard for the pollutant, which is the level EPA has set to
protect public health. AQI values below 100 are generally thought of as
satisfactory. When AQI values are above 100, air quality is considered
to be unhealthy-at first for certain sensitive groups of people, then
for everyone as AQI values get higher.
The purpose of the AQI is to help you understand what local air
quality means to your health. To make it easier to understand, the AQI
is divided into six categories (see Appendix 1).
The map of pollution impact on human health and mentioned
methodology enable to decide what associated health effect might be due
to concentration of pollutants and what kind of diseases it might cause.
Analysing the map the most attention is paid to such diseases groups as
heart and lung diseases. The pollution impact on human heath is
different for individual groups of people. In the methodology there are
mentioned four main groups, i.e. sensitive groups (people with
respiratory, cardiopulmonary and cardiovascular diseases), adults,
active children, older adults.
AQI index is calculated for particular pollutant in VGTU area
(ozone, particular mates, carbon monoxide, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen
dioxide). Values are illustrated in maps (see Figure 2 and 3).
Basing on the given maps there it is possible to state that the air
quality in the zone of concern is good or moderate. Near the streets the
pollution is bigger and carbon monoxide and sulphur dioxide levels are
reaching unsatisfactory levels. That means that people living and
working in this territory are always on exposure of pollutants. So in
this zone sensitive individuals might experience discomfort and
respiratory symptoms. Also there is possible aggravation of heart or
lung diseases in people with cardiopulmonary diseases and older people.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
Basing on the above proposed pollution maps it is possible to plan
refurbishment measures efficiently in order to implement sustainable
development principles in public buildings refurbishment.
5. CONCLUSIONS
Sustainable refurbishment is significant problem in current
buildings stock, taking much scientists attention as well as European
Commission initiatives. Sustainable refurbishment is widely discussed in
the literature and various models and decision making tools proposed. In
this article authors integrate sustainable development principles,
decision making process and influencing factors into one unique
conceptual sustainable refurbishment model.
[FIGURE 3 OMITTED]
Model involves macro and micro environment factors analysis,
integrates participating in refurbishment stakeholders' decisions
and needs. Accordingly to sustainable refurbishment principles
refurbishment not only decreases energy consumption but also improves
whole condition of the building: its exploitation, noise insulation
conditions, exterior, and comfort; extends buildings life cycle,
increases value of the building, reduces negative impact to environment
and guarantees healthy living and working conditions.
Much attention is paid on decision making process. In order to
design and implement buildings refurbishment basing on sustainable
development principles it is necessary to follow these principles from
idea till implementation. Furthermore, information character should
change in dependence on decision making phase--one type of information
is needed in the initial information collection stage and another at the
end of decision implementation stage.
In order to demonstrate models' application possibilities
following the healthcare principle, practical case study of Vilnius
Gediminas Technical University main building pollution mapping is given.
The map of pollution impact on human health enables to decide what
associated health effect might be due to concentration of pollutants and
what kind of diseases it might cause. Basing on the above proposed
pollution maps it is possible to plan refurbishment measures efficiently
in order to implement sustainable development principles in public
buildings refurbishment.
Received 3 August 2007; accepted 7 December 2007
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Aiste MICKAITYTE (1) [mail], Edmundas K. ZAVADSKAS (2), Arturas
KAKLAUSKAS (3) and Laura TUPENAITE (4)
(1) Department of Construction Technology and Management, Vilnius
Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius,
Lithuania E-mail: aistem@st.vgtu.lt
(2) Department of Construction Technology and Management, Vilnius
Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius,
Lithuania
(3) Department of Construction Economics and Property Management,
Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223
Vilnius, Lithuania
(4) Department of Construction Technology and Management, Vilnius
Gediminas Technical University, Sauletekio al. 11, LT-10223 Vilnius,
Lithuania
APPENDIX 1. AQI values and impact on human health
Air Quality Influence on
Index Value human health Colour Meaning
0 to 50 Good Green Air quality is considered
satisfactory, and air
pollution poses little or
no risk.
51 to 100 Moderate Yellow Air quality is acceptable;
however, for some pollutants
there may be a moderate
health concern for a very
small number of people who
are unusually sensitive to
air pollution.
Usually sensitive
individuals might experience
discomfort and respiratory
symptoms. Possible
aggravation of heart or lung
diseases to people with
cardiopulmonary diseases
and older people.
101 to 150 Unhealthy Orange Members of sensitive groups
(for sensitive may experience health
groups) effects. Increasing
likelihood of respiratory
symptoms and breathing
discomfort in active
children, adults and people
with lung diseases. Also
aggravation of heart or
lung diseases and premature
mortality in people with
cardiopulmonary diseases
and older adults. People
with heart diseases might
experience chest pain and
tightness. The general
public is not likely to
be affected.
151 to 200 Unhealthy Red Everyone may begin to
experience health effects;
members of sensitive groups
may experience more serious
health effects.
Greater likelihood of
respiratory symptoms and
breathing difficulties in
active children and adults
and people with lung
diseases. Possible
aggravation of the heart,
cardiovascular symptoms and
premature mortality in
people with cardopulmonary
disease.
201 to 300 Very Unhealthy Purple Increasingly severe symptoms
and impaired breathing
likely in active children
and adults and people with
lung diseases, increasing
likelihood of respiratory
effects in general
population. Significant
aggravation of heart or lung
disease, cardiovascular
symptoms and premature
mortality in people with
cardiopulmonary disease
and older people.
301 to 500 Hazardous Maroon Health warnings of emergency
conditions. The entire
population is more likely to
be affected. Hazardous
Severe respiratory effects
and impaired breathing
likely in active children
and adults and people with
lung disease. Increasingly
severe respiratory effects
likely in general
population. Serious
aggravation of heart and
cardiovascular symptoms and
premature mortality in
people with heart disease.
Impairment of strenuous
activities in general
population.
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