Student-initiated attention to form in wiki-based collaborative writing.(Report)

INTRODUCTION

One obvious benefit of technology for language learning is the creation of opportunities for students to use language in authentic contexts. Such activities encourage students to strive for autonomy in the target language. This study investigates student behavior within a long-term autonomous interactive task. The primary purpose of this paper is to identify students' autonomous language learning ability, specifically focusing on their attention to grammatical accuracy throughout the task. Their performance is evaluated with respect to an autonomy framework (Littlewood, 1996) to identify the degree to which these teacher candidates are able to correct their own and others' grammar errors in a long-term collaborative task. Such observation provides us with an understanding of student behavior when engaged in these kinds of tasks and environments.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Student Attention to Form and Content Based Instruction

While there is general agreement that some attention to grammar is necessary in language teaching, some have argued that inductive, or student-initiated, attention to grammar may be most effective (Long, 1996). Stryker (1997) found that the elimination of grammar from content-based instruction (CBI) resulted in students' demanding formal grammar instruction. In the same article, Stryker concludes that the use of CBI does not preclude grammar instruction; rather it requires that teachers make informed decisions about how and when to teach grammar and encourage the use of self-correcting techniques, thus allowing students to develop responsibility for their learning and use of the target language.

Factors that have been shown to influence students' attention to form include nature of collaboration (Swain, 2000; Swain & Lapkin, 1998), type of task (Storch, 2001; Williams, 1999), student proficiency level (Leeser, 2004), and length of task discourse (Williams, 1999). These few studies have investigated student-initiated attention to form in classrooms where teachers are present to respond to requests. There seems to be no research regarding observation of student-initiated attention to form when working in a "student-only" online environment. Further, there has been little discussion over the role that student-only tasks may play in students' autonomous attention to form.

Such tasks may be most relevant for advanced learners. Ellis (2006) concludes that when dealing with explicit understanding of grammar it may be best to rely upon deduction for simple rules and induction for more advanced rules. While not explicitly addressing CBI, Ellis (2006) states that "focus on form can be incidental, where attention to form in the context of a communicative activity is not predetermined but rather occurs in accordance with the participants' linguistic needs as the activity proceeds" (p. 100-1). This flexible approach to addressing grammar concerns would alleviate problems of inappropriate matching between the grammatical focus of lessons and the needs and interests of students (Garcia Mayo, 2002). One approach to introducing such flexibility into the language classroom is to employ collaborative practices and principles into the learning process.

Collaboration

Many have argued for the promotion of collaboration among learners (Bruce, Peyton, & Batson, 1993; Storch, 1999). Arnold & Ducate (2006) observed that the context, tools, and participants of a learning environment help to mediate collaborative learning. Swain concluded that collaborative activities, "lead learners to reflect on their own language production as they attempt to create meaning" (1995, p. 141). Researchers have found that collaborative writing contributes to an increased complexity in writing and willingness to utilize peer feedback (Sotillo, 2002) as well as increased grammatical accuracy and overall quality of writing (Storch, 2005). Some have identified that students are likely to actively engage in online collaborative activities due to the public nature of the information and sense of accountability (Sengupta, 2001). Through the act of collaboration, students are exposed to valuable input from others (Vygotsky, 1962), encouraged to produce enhanced output (Oxford, 1997), given more opportunity for practice (Ortega, 2007), and provide effective linguistic feedback for themselves and peers (Vygotsky, 1978). The evolution of collaborative writing may be intrinsically connected with iterations of technology since new developments provide new opportunities for collaboration. Unlike most previous research on collaboration, which has focused upon pair and small group work, the current study incorporates wiki technology which supports a many-to-many form of collaboration.

Wikis and Language Learning

Levy and Stockwell (2006) provide an overview of the distinctions between various types of Computer-Mediated Communication (CMC), including suggestions that asynchronous CMC may allow for more focus on form due to the additional time available for reflection. However, wikis are not included in this otherwise comprehensive overview. The literature contains no evidence of research into the use of wikis in the context of language learning. Therefore, it may be necessary to provide some background.

Wikis are unique among CMC tools. CMC tools such as discussion forums, synchronous CMC, email, and conferencing tools accommodate the collaborative discussion of ideas well, but students are typically expected to produce or perform some task outside the context of the CMC itself. The permanent retention of each iteration of posts in a wiki provides users the opportunity to explore the evolution of any wiki page, and, if deemed appropriate, replace the current version with a previous iteration. Wikis allow for the complete revision of text by any user. Thus, a contribution is not a comment or response (as it might be in a blog), but an alteration to the previous contribution. This means that a wiki-based text is in a constant state of potential collaborative change. Wikis have been described by the creator of the first wiki (wikiwikiweb), Ward Cunningham, as "the simplest online database that could possibly work" (Leuf & Cunningham, 2001, p. 4). In addition, they are also very fast. In fact, Cunningham adopted the term wiki (intended to be pronounced weekee) from a Hawaiian word for "quick."

As Godwin-Jones (2003, p. 15) states, "Wikis are intensely collaborative." In fact, it is precisely the accessibly and extensively open nature of wikis that results in much of the public scrutiny of the legitimacy of Wikipedia as a source of academic information. The mere ease with which contributors can alter information may be too much of a temptation for those interested in constructing misleading information. However, this openness to collaboration may also result in the rapid correction of such erroneous information. Discussing the emerging technology of wikis, Godwin-Jones states, "Such a system only works with users serious about collaborating and willing to follow the group conventions and practices" (p. 15). Such responsibility is representative of characteristics associated with autonomy among language learners.

Autonomy in Language Learning

Learner autonomy is obviously important in SLA. Successful autonomous use of the target language should be the ultimate goal of language instruction. As students progress toward autonomy, it is important that they develop the ability to self assess their own accuracy (Little, 1999). However, some have suggested that the risk of losing control over the classroom may actually deter teachers from helping students strive for autonomy (Cotterall, 1995). Research has investigated a number of factors that can affect autonomy. Kupetz and Zeigenmeyer (2006) argue that autonomous learning can be achieved by encouraging students to "take responsibility and make informed choices" (p. 63). Spratt, Humphreys, and Chan (2002) suggest that motivation may be a precursor to autonomy. Benson (1997, 2001) recognizes the enormous potential for the development of autonomy through the use of technology, as well as the reliance upon autonomy in order to effectively utilize the potential of technology-based learning environments.

The current study contributes to the literature by examining student-initiated attention to form in an autonomous collaborative writing environment. Its goals are to determine the degree to which students will initiate attempts to correct their own and peer contributions as well as the degree of accuracy that they achieve. The current study also seeks to understand students' perceptions of the autonomous collaborative task. It is based on Littlewood's framework of autonomy which identifies "autonomy as a learner" as including "(a) the ability to engage in independent work (e.g., self-directed learning); and (b) the ability to use appropriate learning strategies, both inside and outside the classroom" (1996, p. 431). The framework divides autonomy into ability and willingness with ability subdivided into knowledge and skills and willingness comprised of motivation and confidence.

METHODOLOGY

Background information

The current study was conducted over the course of a sixteen-week semester in an online content-based instruction course for Non-Native Speaker (NNS) pre-service English teachers. The course, Cultures of the English Speaking World, is an academic course with a secondary function of providing students with meaningful target language exposure. The course is a required component of a teacher preparation course at a large Mexican university. The course was delivered through a Moodle-based course management system with additional features of Adobe Acrobat Connect and Gong voice board for synchronous and asynchronous video and voice interaction, respectively. Students were required to participate at least three times a week to stay on top of the required tasks, including weekly discussion forum exchanges, access to static and dynamic web-based content, live video lectures, student video presentations, and an ongoing collaboration on a wiki. The wiki, intended to serve as a final product of the class, allowed students to collectively define the rather abstract term culture throughout the 15-week long course. While there may be myriad benefits for this kind of collaboration, this study is concerned with student-initiated attention to grammar.