Abstract
Mary's Point Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve, located
near Harvey, New Brunswick, Canada, is an example of excellence in small
protected area management. Shorebird protection was initiated by and
continues through the voluntary efforts of two community members.
Working in cooperation with regional, national and international
partners, the volunteer stewards successfully overcame serious obstacles
including the protected area's small size; a low and unpredictable
budget; and negative local reaction. Efforts spanning three decades
resulted in transformation of Mary's Point (MP) from a highly
disturbed recreational beach to an internationally acclaimed and locally
respected shorebird reserve.
Using a case study approach, this paper presents the meaning of
successful management at this small protected area. Secondly, it
examines trends and key stages in the evolution of protecting MP.
Thirdly, it examines seven factors associated with successful protection
of this shorebird migratory stopover site: (1) dedicated volunteer
stewards; (2) clear sense of purpose; (3) collaboration; (4) research
and monitoring; (5) effective visitor management; (6) education and
interpretation; and (7) local involvement. Leadership by ecologically
literate community members played a pivotal role in collaborative
efforts to protect migratory shorebirds at MP.
La Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve de Marys' Point,
situee pres de Harvey, au Nouveau-Brunswick, Canada, est un exemple
d'excellente gestion des petites zones protegees. La protection des
oiseaux de rivage a debute et se poursuit grace aux efforts benevoles de
deux membres de la collectivite. De concert avec des partenaires
regionaux, nationaux et internationaux, les intendants benevoles ont
franchi avec succes d'importants obstacles, incluant: Ia petite
taille de la zone protegee; un budget petit et imprevisible; et des
reactions locales negatives. Les efforts, qui se sont etendus sur trois
decennies, ont resulte en la transformation de Mary's Point : de
plage recreative tres perturbee qu'elle etait, elle est devenue une
reserve d'oiseaux de rivage respectee localement et acclamee
internationalement. Cet article, au moyen dune etude de cas, decrit ce
que represente une gestion reussie pour cette petite zone protegee. II
examine ensuite les tendances et les etapes cles de l'evolution
dans les demarches de protection de Marys' Point. Puis I decrit
sept facteurs associes une protection reussie de cet arret migratoire
des oiseaux de rivage: (1) des intendants benevoles devoues; (2) un
objectif clair; (3) de la collaboration; (4) de la recherche et de la
surveillance; (5) une gestion efficace des visiteurs; (6) de
l'education et de l'interpretation; et (7) un engagement
local. Le leadership exerce par des membres de la collectivite eduques
sur le plan de l'ecologie a joue un role essentiel dans les efforts
de collaboration visant a proteger les oiseaux de rivage migrateurs de
Mary's Point.
Key Words:
protected area, community, shorebird conservation, volunteer
stewardship
Introduction
Mary's Point (MP) located near Harvey, New Brunswick, in
Eastern Canada, is a small unit (107 ha) within the Shepody National
Wildlife Area. It is owned and administered by the Canadian Wildlife
Service (Environment Canada). The interpretive services are operated by,
the New Brunswick Federation of Naturalists (NBFN), while day-to-day
management occurs through the voluntary efforts of two local community
members (both founding and active members of the NBFN). This case study
provides insight into how the voluntary community stewards of this
internationally acclaimed migratory shorebird reserve overcame serious
threats to ecological integrity. These threats included small size; an
unstable and low budget; and severe negative local reaction to initial
protection efforts. Furthermore, the lifecycle needs of migratory
shorebirds (involving nesting grounds in the Arctic, southward migratory
stops in the upper Bay of Fundy, over-wintering habitats in South
America, and northward migratory stops in prairie wetlands) dictate
cooperative thinking and action at regional, national and international
levels (Myers et al. 1987, Cox 1999). Despite these challenges, success
has been achieved: MP is now an internationally recognized example of
excellence in migratory shorebird protection and small protected area
management.
Maintaining ecological integrity is a common goal in protected area
management. According to Parks Canada Agency (2000:15), an ecosystem is
said to have integrity "when it is deemed characteristic for its
natural region, including the composition and abundance of native
species and biological communities, rates of change and supporting
processes." Importantly, ecological integrity is not just relevant
to protected areas, nor does its protection necessarily imply the
exclusion of human interests. Indeed, there is increasing recognition of
the vital links between ecological integrity and community wellbeing
resulting in numerous community-based conservation initiatives involving
both public and private lands (Western and Wright 1994, Bernard and
Young 1997, Hannum 1997, Weber 2000).
Extensive knowledge on threats to ecological integrity has led to
widespread recognition of the need to integrate protected areas into
their surrounding, dynamic ecological and socio-economic regions (see
Shafer 1990, Schonewald-Cox et al. 1992, Grumbine 1994, and Sportza 1999
for reviews). Integrative approaches are particularly important for
small protected areas given that the more fragmented and isolated a
natural area becomes, the more difficult it becomes to maintain
ecological integrity (Harris 1984, Noss 1987, Saunders et al. 1991).
Thus sustaining ecological integrity in human-dominated landscapes
dictates adaptive approaches that address the intertwined biophysical
and social realities of protected area management (Ehrenfeld 1995,
McNeely 1995, and Lister and Kay 2000). Case studies provide a useful
means to study the interplay of the site-specific social and ecological
dimensions of protected area management.
The purpose of this case study was to understand the management
approach at MP. It presents -- from a community perspective -- the
processes and factors associated with this natural area's
transformation from a highly disturbed beach, to an internationally
acclaimed and locally respected shorebird reserve.
Methods
This case study was initiated as part of a larger project exploring
successful stewardship approaches for small protected areas (Curthoys
Brown 1995). MP was nominated as a model of excellence in small
protected area management through a peer review process.
"Small" is defined as less than 1000 hectares in this study. A
nonrandom, stratified (by country, region and protected area type)
sample of 1,099 protected area managers from the United States and
Canada was surveyed using either a self-administered questionnaire or a
telephone interview. The 451 respondents were asked to recommend a small
protected area that, in their opinion, demonstrated excellence in
conservation management, where "management" was defined as
"action toward desired end results" (Allen 1990). To obtain
peer consensus, 60 other protected area managers and other professionals
in conservation-related fields were asked to review the candidate list,
resulting in 138 nominations. MP was one of the few places (6.9%) to be
nominated three or mo re times, making it a prime study site (Curthoys
Brown 1995).
Study Site
Mary's Point, named after a Micmac First Nation's woman,
is situated in the Upper Bay of Fundy within a sparsely populated, rural
region of New Brunswick's Bay (Figure 1). Located within a
sheltered bay, the Point and surrounding area comprise mixed woodland,
rocky shore, beach, sand dune, Spartina tidal marsh and intertidal
mudflats (Environment Canada 2001). These mudflats consist of fine
marine silts supporting extremely high densities of the Fundy mud shrimp
Corophium volutator -- the principal prey of shorebirds. With their high
fat and protein content and abundant numbers (up to 60,000 shrimp per
square metre of mud), these amphipods provide the necessary energy
required for the shorebirds three to four day, non-stop, 4,000 km flight
to South America (Stoddard et al. 1983, Morrison 1984). The birds are
particularly vulnerable while they are roosting as any disturbance
causing them to fly results in loss of fat stored for the migratory
flight (Helmers 1992).
The combination of shelter, sandy beaches at high tide, and
plentiful food draws millions of shorebirds to MP from early July to
mid-November, with the highest concentration occurring between mid-July
and mid-August (Hicklin 1987). The most numerous shorebirds stopping at
MP are the Semipalmated Sandpiper (Calidris pusilla) with total annual
numbers ranging between 200,000 and 500,000 (Christie, pers.com). It is
estimated that between 50 to 95 per cent of the world population of
Semipalmated Sandpipers depend on the Fundy's mud flats for their
survival (Mawhinney et al. 1993). Other species occurring in the
thousands include the Least sandpiper (Calidris minutilla), White-rumped
Sandpiper (C. fuscicollis), Sanderlings (C. alba), Dunlin (C. alpina),
and Semipalmated Plover (Charadrius semipalmatus). MP is one of the
largest migratory stop-over sites within the Bay of Fundy for these
species (Hicklin 1987; Christie, pers.com.).
As noted by Myers et al. (1987), effective shorebird protection is
dependent on the health of all shorebird habitats including breeding,
migratory stop-over, and wintering areas: disturbance at one area can be
disastrous for entire populations. With a high concentration of
shorebirds using a small number of traditional migratory staging areas,
entire shorebird populations are at high risk during fall migration
through the Bay of Fundy. As such, MP is an example of a small, yet
critical, natural area essential to the survival of millions of
shorebirds. Potential threats to the ecological integrity of MP include
an increase in current visitation rates, pollution, and drastic
alteration of tidal oscillation patterns caused by development of
barrages for generation of tidal power.
As a resident of the area since 1962, Dr. Mary Majka first visited
and recognized MPs importance in 1963. Prior to this time, the
ecological significance of the Point as a shorebird migratory staging
area was virtually unknown to local community members, naturalists and
wildlife scientists. Informal guardianship by local volunteers and
formal shorebird surveys began in 1974. Four years later, MP gained
legal designation as part of the Shepody National Wildlife Area, under
the jurisdiction of the Canadian Wildlife Service. In 1982, MP was
designated a Ramsar site (Wetland of International Importance) because
of its critical role in fall migration for numerous shorebird species
(Environment Canada 2001). In 1987, MP and the adjacent Shepody Bay were
designated as the first Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve in Canada. In 1989
a Memorandum of Cooperation was signed by the CWS and the Suriname
Forest Service. This agreements states that the CWS commits to
protecting Semipalmated Sandpipers at migration staging areas in the Bay
of Fundy Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve, while the Surinam Forest Service
commits to protecting the sandpipers on their wintering grounds in the
Wia-Wia, Coppername, and Bigi Pan Hemispheric Shorebird Reserves in
Suriname. For nearly three decades, Mary Majka and David Christie have
voluntarily managed the area, in close co-operation with the Canadian
Wildlife Service and other partners including the Albert County Heritage
Trust, New Brunswick Federation of Naturalists, and the Western
Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve network.
Case Study Analysis
Analysis of MP involved use of multiple data sources and analytical
techniques, allowing triangulation of data. Sources included a detailed
written questionnaire sent to the volunteer stewards prior to the first
site visit, two site visits, management-related documents (including job
descriptions, site brochures, CWS publications and newspaper articles),
and interviews with the two volunteer stewards and four other community
members. Of these four, two belonged to third-generation families, while
the other two had lived in the area for 10 years or less. Three of the
four operated local tourist accommodations and one worked at MP as an
interpretive warden. The interviews were taped and transcribed verbatim
to increase reliability of data collection and validity of data
analysis. Qualitative methods used included thematic content analysis
(Carney 1972, Strauss 1987, Berg 1995) and ethnographic interview
analysis (Spradley 1979). Ethnographic interview analysis probes
cultural meaning systems through analysis of linguistic symbols and
their semantic relationships. In addition to verifying themes identified
via content analysis, ethnographic interview analysis facilitated a more
indepth look at community members' perspectives on the meaning of
excellence in conservation management at MP.
In an attempt to gain an understanding of the management of MP from
a community perspective, interviews were conducted with a limited number
of community members with long-term knowledge of the protected
area's history, rather than conducting a community-wide survey.
Thus, although the nature of the study limits its generalizability, it
presents useful insights into protected area management from a unique
and important perspective.
Results
Case study results are presented in three sections: (1) meaning of
excellence in conservation management at Mary's Point; (2) the
process of achieving successful shorebird protection; and (3) the
dominant attributes of the management approach at this small protected
area.
1. Meaning of Excellence in Small Protected Area Management at
Mary's Point
What does excellence in small protected area management mean at
Mary's Point? Effective management approaches for protected areas
will share common features; however, the specific meaning of success
will be determined by site characteristics and landscape context. In
addition, the concept "successful management" is subjective,
its meaning being created and shaped by the people who are directly and
indirectly connected with this site as stewards, visitors, researchers,
and community members. Ethnographic interview analysis of interviews
with the long-term site stewards identified "shorebird
protection" as central to the meaning of excellence in conservation
management of MP. It is the reason the reserve was established, it is
the top management priority, and it is the criterion by which success is
judged. Initially protective efforts were focused on minimizing
disturbances to the birds while they rested on the beach at MP.
Protective actions primarily included monitoring beach activities. With
increased unders tanding of shorebird ecology, local efforts expanded to
include protection of shorebird habitat at MP (salt marshes, mudflats
and roosting areas), as well as education programmes on the importance
of wetlands and shorebird migration. On a national and international
scale, the CWS and other members of the Western Hemispheric Shorebird
Reserve Network addressed protection of breeding and over wintering
habitats of these migratory birds. Thus, successful shorebird protection
came to mean much more than simply abating human disturbances to
shorebirds at MP
Suggested indicators of successful management at MP include:
* marked reduction in disturbance to shorebirds and habitat;
* recognition of the ecological importance of MP at local,
regional, national and international levels;
* increased local support for MP;
* local attitude shift toward volunteer stewards from suspicion and
resistance, to one of respect and gratitude;
* minimal visitor problems, despite high number of people during a
concentrated period of time;
* influence of conservation efforts at MP on protection of other
wildlife species and spaces in the region
* provincial and national awards given to the volunteer stewards in
recognition of their conservation work.
2. Achieving Successful Shorebird Protection: "These things
take time"
Achieving successful shorebird protection at MP did not occur
quickly, nor did it occur simultaneously with legal designation as part
of the Shepody National Wildlife Area. Rather, effective protection of
the shorebirds evolved over three decades. The precautionary principle
was put into action at MP in that the volunteer stewards:
proceeded step-by-step without having a great big master plan ...
This way we had time to think about what we were doing. And another
thing, if we did make any mistakes we could correct them and rectify
them.
Figure 2 shows the key events in the transformation of MP from a
highly disturbed recreational beach to an internationally acclaimed and
locally respected shorebird reserve; and the corresponding general
trends in shorebird disturbance, visitor numbers and local support.
These trends are discussed below.
Trends in Disturbance to Shorebirds and their Habitat
From the early sixties to the mid-seventies, birds visiting MP
experienced periods of very high levels of disturbance. Disruptive
activities included picnicking near roasting areas, dogs and children
chasing birds, birds used as gun target practice, night beach parties,
horse-back riding and ATV use on the beach. The level of disturbance
began a slow decline from the years 1974 to 1978 due to increased
supervision of MP by the volunteer stewards. Another key factor in
shorebird protection was the volunteer steward's purchase of a
cottage on land adjacent to the end of the beach. This purchase allowed
for increased supervision of the birds when resting on the beach, and
because it contained the only vehicle access to the beach, it also meant
vehicle access (mostly night time party use and ATV beach use) could be
controlled. The property also buffered the most critical shorebird
habitat. Marked reduction in disturbance level for the birds occurred in
1978 when MP was designated as part of the Shepody National W ildlife
Area under the Canada Wildlife Act. Federal protection of this
nationally significant wetland area gave the volunteer stewards
increased enforcement leverage. For example, it was only through federal
involvement that horseback riding on the beach was stopped. However,
legal designation alone was not enough to ensure shorebird protection.
As the federal government did not have funds for staff, the volunteer
stewards took over day-to-day management including beach supervision
during migration, securing grants, hiring and training seasonal staff,
maintenance, public relations and communications, and development of
interpretive facilities. By 1987, levels of disturbance to the
shorebirds and their habitat decreased to very low levels as a result of
constant beach supervision and visitor education provided by hired
interpretive-wardens. Thus effective shorebird protection occurred
through the combination of both federal and local efforts. Currently,
shorebirds stopping at MP experience minimal, if any, hum an
disturbance.
Trends in Visitation and Recreational Use
Over a 30-year time frame, visitation numbers at MP increased from
approximately 1000 people per year to well over 15,000 people per year.
In the early sixties, the number of visitors to MP was very low:
approximately 10 visitors per day (mainly weekend use by local
residents) from June to October. Recreational uses included walking,
picnics and night beach parties. In 1975, visitation dropped slightly
when road access to the beach was closed. The mid-1970s saw an increase
in public use, especially by bird watchers. Local passive recreational
activities such as walking and picnicking continued, while disruptive
uses had stopped. In the late eighties, visitation increased
dramatically due to national and international media attention (with
numbers doubling for a few days after each media event). At that time,
the volunteer stewards took steps to control media coverage during the
migration season. The numbers continued to increase to moderate levels
with the early nineties seeing about 50 visitors per day durin g the
summer and fall months. Visitation leveled off in the late nineties at
100 or more people per day: a high visitation rate given the small and
fragile ecology of the area used by the migratory shorebirds. The
current management plan calls for capping visitor numbers at the current
level. Visitors include local community members, naturalists, and
general tourists.
Trends in Local Support forMary's Point
As shown in Figure 2, local support for MP changed from very low to
moderate-high. It should be noted that the level of community support is
based on perceptions of only six community members (including the two
volunteer stewards), rather than a community-wide survey. However, there
was a consensus from these people that community support ranged from
moderate to high. For example one community member commented:
I don't know any one who is against Mary's Point. If
there are people who are against Mary, I don't understand because
Mary has done a lot for our community But there are some people [who
don't like change]... She likes to see things happen in the
community Which I think is great!
Additional evidence of increased support includes a shift in level
of disturbance to shorebirds from extreme to very minimal, comments in
the visitor log book, unsolicited defense of MP by local residents,
cessation of on-site vandalism, and regular use by local schools.
Factors believed to be linked to increased local support include:
heightened awareness of shorebird migration and the significance of MP
as a key migratory stopover area; local employment opportunities for
seasonal workers and youth; pride in local natural heritage; economic
spin-offs for local businesses; perception of the stewards as community
leaders (people who care about and would fight for the values held by
the community at large); and maintained access to the beach for passive
recreational purposes such as picnicking and walking. It is possible
that increased support for shorebird protection also reflects the
Canadian public's general heightened awareness of environmental
issues.
3. Attributes of the Management Approach at Mary's Point
Thematic content and ethnographic interview analyses identified
seven dominant attributes associated with the management approach at MP:
(1) dedicated community leaders; (2) clear sense of purpose; (3)
research and monitoring; (4) collaboration at multiple levels; (5)
effective visitor management; (6) education and heritage interpretation;
and (7) local involvement.
Dedicated Volunteer Stewards
Protecting the shorebirds at MP began with Mary Majka--a person
with sensitivity and compassion for all life, extensive knowledge of
natural history, and perseverance to fulfill a personal mission to
protect the shorebirds. Mary first visited the shorebird staging area in
1963, by chance arriving during the peak of migration and at high tide
when thousands of migrating shorebirds were congregating on the beach to
rest after spending the day foraging across the expansive mud flats.
Recalling that fateful day, she stated:
(s]ome people built a little cottage down here. We knew the people
quite well. The lady said, "you ought to come see the cottage,
Mary, you like birds, there are just thousands of them." I thought
she must be exaggerating, she must mean hundreds. It just happened that
we arrived on a high tide when the birds were congregating and it was in
August and I was just absolutely speechless. But I also immediately saw
how vulnerable this whole area was ... people were swimming, and the
kids were chasing the birds and there was a dog. And so there was a lot
of disturbance and to my sensitive mind it was a terrible thing. We were
guests so I didn't say anything. I stopped the children from
throwing rocks and so on, but I could hardly do anything. But I
immediately started to think, this area ought to be protected.
A few years later, David Christie--a highly respected and equally
dedicated naturalist--joined Mary in her efforts to protect MP. In 1974,
they purchased a key property adjacent to MP and have been the volunteer
guardians of MP since this time.
A defining characteristic of these stewards is their community
mindedness. Awareness of local perceptions and attitudes, commitment to
protecting their community's natural and historical heritage, and
concern for community needs, played an important role in reversing
initial local resistance to shorebird protection. For example, Mary
understood that local people required time to understand and see the
beach "in a new light": "Every time you start something
like this, it has to take its time for people to understand, to realize
and to see the advantage of actually having such a [reserve]."
Comments by other local residents agreed that in general their community
was resistant to any kind of change.
Mary attributes eventual acceptance by the community to their
strong concern for and involvement in the community. Hiring community
members for MP and the local museum, promoting local tourist facilities
and attractions, working cooperatively with the local Fish and Game
Association, maintaining a popular hiking trail, protecting numerous
local heritage sites (including a church, bank, covered bridge, and
shipyard), developing a community garden, being active in many community
issues, and generally, being a "good neighbour" all
contributed toward enhanced community relations.
Clear Sense of Purpose: "Birds First"
From the beginning, shorebird safety was given top priority and it
continues to be the primary management goal at MP. The purpose of the
reserve is for the protection of the birds, not for tourism. As stated
by Mary
... this area was not created to be a tourist attraction. We try to
stress in everything we do, the fact that, this area has been created
solely for the protection of birds, not for the public. Furthermore,
witnessing the spectacular shorebird migration is considered a
privilege. I always tell people that we are privileged to be witnessing
this phenomenon, to see the migration. But only privileged and that
privilege can always be removed.
Prioritizing protection over tourism ensures that the number of
tourists can be supported without negatively impacting the ecological
integrity of MP. The message that "shorebird safety comes
first" has been consistently and clearly conveyed to the public.
Protective actions are guided by a philosophy of noninterference with
natural processes and in a manner that is respectful of local traditions
(e.g. local community members continue to use the area for picnics,
walks and other non-disruptive activities). Secondary and tertiary
management goals include visitor education and community outreach.
Research and Monitoring
Extensive coordinated research on shorebird migration and ecology
provided the natural science basis for effective management. Less than
forty years ago, most local residents had no comprehension that
thousands of shorebirds depended on their local beach. Indeed for 75% of
the year, MP looks like an ordinary beach. Even during the migration
period, the birds are inconspicuous until they congregate at high tide.
Furthermore, in the early sixties knowledge of the role of the Bay of
Fundy in shorebird migration was not known (Hicklin 1987). As noted
above, a chance discovery by an ecologically literate citizen, and
subsequent research on the Bay of Fundy and shorebird ecology led to
national and international awareness of the area's significance.
The volunteer stewards started informal shorebird observations at MP in
the mid-sixties. Regular, formal surveys started in 1974, when Dr. Guy
Morrison of the Canadian Wildlife Service (CWS) organized the Maritimes
Shorebird Survey. The volunteer stewards continue to co nduct weekly
shorebird counts from May through November and monitor visitor impacts.
Collaboration at Local, Provincial, National and International
Levels
Thematic and ethnographic interview analyses indicated that
collaboration was central to successful management of MP. Formation of a
partnership between a federal conservation agency and the two local
volunteer stewards who lived adjacent to MP forged the path toward
multi-level cooperation essential to effective shorebird conservation.
Local linkages stopped disturbances to birds and generated increased
awareness of shorebird ecology. Provincial linkages (e.g. New Brunswick
Federation of Naturalists) were required to leverage operational funds
through grants and function as employer. A national linkage was
important to land acquisition, stronger enforcement at MP, gaining
international recognition as a critical migratory staging area,
protecting shorebird breeding grounds in the Canadian arctic, securing
additional management resources and facilities, and conducting extensive
research within the Bay of Fundy.
Ongoing cooperation between local and national partners was
particularly important to successful shorebird protection. The
partnership between the CWS and local volunteer stewards is amiable, it
is based on a shared understanding of and commitment to goals, it
involves informal and regular communication, and it reflects respect for
each partner's roles and areas of expertise. At the global level,
western hemispheric linkages were required to support protection of
over-wintering grounds in South America. International recognition of MP
as a Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve, in turn, generated increased
pride and support at the local level.
Overall, collaborative, efforts had a synergistic effect in that
recognition was initiated by naturalists from the Bay of Fundy region
(Mary and David), then spread to national and international levels, that
in turn, led back to enhanced appreciation and pride in MP at the
community level. Moreover, widespread public interest in shorebird
migration created the need for visitor facilities, visitor education,
and public control mechanisms at the site, and the need for more tourist
accommodations. This in turn led to increased employment opportunities,
and a new local perception of the Point as an economic asset for the
community.
Effective Visitor Management
The primary visitor management objective is to control human use of
the beach at high tide when the birds are resting. In the mid-eighties
disruptive recreational activities had stopped; however, increasing
visitor numbers due to heightened awareness of MP and a general push for
nature-based tourism in New Brunswick posed a new threat to shorebird
safety. Today, despite the high visitation rate (15,000 from late June
through to September), there is minimal disturbance to the shorebirds
stopping at MP to rest and refuel. Successful techniques include
controlled access, constant supervision of birds when roosting on the
beach, and on-site interpretation to educate people about shorebird
ecology and the significance of this small protected area.
Even visitors themselves have played a role as self-appointed
defenders of the birds, as was the case one time when visitors at the
beach shouted "go back" to two men who refused to stay within
the designated boundaries. Ways to ensure continued minimal disturbance,
including a cap on visitor numbers, are currently under review.
Interviews with community members indicate lack of comprehension of the
need to limit visitor numbers, and thus the need for increased
communication about this issue.
At MP, a proactive visitor management approach is taken via
controlled publicity. Promotion during migration is no longer done
because it caused exponential increases in visitation. Also, the
information going out to the public is controlled to ensure visitors
come with the right expectations, i.e., that MP is a sensitive protected
area, not a tourist attraction. An ongoing challenge is to ensure media
and tourism agencies present MP in the correct light.
Continued success in shorebird protection is dependent on
controlling public visitation by changing the widespread public
perception that all protected areas are primarily for public enjoyment
(Nelson 1998). Related to this, David commented:
[p]erhaps protected areas are for people, but not in the way
generally perceived, more as educational tools for us to realize they
are too valuable to be used as recreational, multiple-use areas.
Mary's Point is a good example of this kind of approach. The public
is not excluded but is controlled, and at the same time educated.
Regarding local use, importantly, MP continues to be enjoyed as a
public beach by local residents as it was prior to its establishment as
a shorebird reserve; however, there are two significant changes. First,
with the exception of persons requiring wheelchairs, the beach can only
be accessed via an interpretive walking trail. Second, human activities
that disrupt the shorebirds and/ or their habitat are not allowed. For
example, dogs must be on a leash and picnicking is allowed only in
certain areas.
Comments in the visitor log book ("a place of
contemplation," "serene," "peaceful') speak to
the effectiveness of the visitor management approach at MP.
Education and Heritage Interpretation
While controlling visitor numbers and behaviors was recognized as
important for immediate shorebird protection, long-term protection is
sought through education. Current visitor facilities and services
include a wheelchair accessible observation deck, natural seating areas
(drift wood logs), a seasonal interpretation centre, seasonal
interpretive wardens, an interpretive trail leading to the beach, and a
seasonal interpretive trail through the salt marshes (boardwalks are
removed during the winter months to minimize impact to the marshes and
to avoid damage from winter storms). All visitor services are geared
toward educating visitors about the ecological value and sensitivity of
the area and the need for shorebird protection.
Importantly, the widespread public interest in the spectacle of
shorebird migration has created an opportunity to educate many people
about other facets of shorebird conservation, such as the importance of
wetlands. Through both direct and indirect interpretation, a visit to MP
becomes much more meaningful than just witnessing the spectacle of
migration. Field observations revealed a unique approach to heritage
interpretation whereby the interpretive wardens were available as
resource people, but did not provide any structured interpretive
programmes. This approach, combined with the quiet, respectful mood at
the beach, set the stage for more visitor-initiated interpretation.
Furthermore, in comparison with numerous other interpretive facilities
observed by the author, there was a much higher frequency of interaction
between visitor groups. Also, on several occasions, I noted visitors
taking on the role of interpreter, sharing their knowledge, equipment,
and most importantly, their enthusiasm.
Local involvement
Local involvement by long-time volunteer stewards, created the
necessary bridge between community realities and national conservation
efforts. As was shown in Figure 2, turning local resentment and
apprehension into support was a slow process; one that required
sensitivity and commitment to the local community. Negative reaction
toward the conservation activities at MP already existed when it became
a National Wildlife Area. For example, in response to closing road
access and stopping disruptive activities, the volunteer stewards dealt
with negative letters published in the local paper. Regarding this, Mary
commented:
[y]ou know when you start being active, especially in a small
community, this is bound to happen because you are putting new things in
place, and some of those things are inconvenient or strange to people --
so they just react. But I guess I know in my own mind, I'm doing
the right things, so I don't worry about it.
Backing from the federal government both in terms of legislative
authority and research provided the clout to move forward with shorebird
conservation efforts despite initial local resistance. Importantly, when
the federal government took ownership of MP, local involvement did not
cease, rather it became essential to on-site protection due to the lack
of federal funding to staff the shorebird reserve. Thus David and Mary
continued to provide the day-to-day care of MP. Community involvement
beyond the volunteer stewards flourished with the need for extra help
with construction maintenance, supervision, and education. Mary
commented that the greatest improvement in community relations occurred
through hiring local people. For example, at the time protection efforts
began, the concept of wildlife preservation was new to many of the older
residents. Thus the idea of protecting birds "that had obviously
been flying here for so many years, and will continue to do so" was
perceived to be a foolish endeavor. Local p eople hired to work at MP
played a key role in transmitting knowledge about the value of MP and
the need for protective measures. Thus gaining support for conservation
efforts at MP was propelled through the involvement of local people.
It is evident from this case study that a combination of federal
authority with local involvement led to effective protection, and to the
development of local pride, attachment and interest in this small
protected area. National legislation coupled with local involvement is a
powerful conservation tool. Legal protection does not necessarily change
traditional perceptions or uses of a place: indeed, it can be perceived
as "outside interference" causing the reverse desired effect.
Community involvement prevented this possible outcome.
Discussion
As noted in the introduction, this case study provides a
site-specific analysis of the ecological and social dimensions of
protected area management. According to the key informants interviewed,
the successful protection of shorebirds and their habitat at MP was
attributed to seven factors discussed above. Comparison with the
literature, suggests that some factors have wide universal application.
For example, a North American study of 15 privately and publiclyowned
small protected areas nominated as examples of excellence in management
(Curthoys Brown 1995) demonstrated similar attributes, with the
exception that ecological restoration is not required at MR These
attributes and their frequency of occurrence at the 15 study sites are
shown below:
* strong dedication of stewards--staff, volunteers, and/or
landowners (15/15);
* increase in the functional ecological size through direct land
acquisition or cooperative management efforts (15/15);
* clear sense of purpose (15/15) supported by a management plan
(13/15);
* emphasis placed on research, monitoring, and evaluation (15/15);
* partnerships required due to limited funds and staff, and to put
a large-scale management focus into action (15/15);
* public visitation controls in place to protect ecological
integrity and visitor experience (15/15);
* advocacy work, especially at the regional level, deemed essential
to generating support for protection goals (14/15);
* ecological restoration program in place (14/15);
* community involvement valued and facilitated (13/15);
* large-scale temporal and spatial management focus (13/15);
* emphasis placed on heritage interpretation (13/15); and
* innovative management strategies used to stretch limited
resources (11/15).
Results of this case study indicate that community leadership
played a pivotal role in collaborative efforts to protect shorebirds
across regional, national and international scales. In general, the
management approach at MP substantiates the current thinking in
protected areas management which promotes safeguarding ecological
integrity through adaptive, inclusive management policies and practices
that integrate conservation lands into their surrounding, dynamic
ecological and socio-economic region. In particular, we have seen
increasing attention given to the fact that long term effective
landscape stewardship will involve a fundamental shift: rethinking human
relationships with and obligations to the land, water, biota and
life-sustaining ecological processes (Leopold 1949, Knudtson and Suzuki
1992).
As noted by Grumbine in his review of ecosystem management
(1997:45), In ecosystem management work the dawning realization is that
the terms humans' and "nature" are mostly conveniences of
communication. Nevertheless, it will take people a long time to evolve
lifeways and cultural practices that embody this new perspective [humans
as part of nature]." Furthermore, Brunckhorst and Rollings
(1999:57) speak of the growing "chasm between natural and social
landscapes" and state, as do other proponents of bioregionalism
(Aberley 1993, McGinnis 1999) that the integration of ecology, economy
and community is necessary to reduce this gap. In the case of MP,
melding ecology, economy and community was achieved--to some
degree--through the life time dedication of two community citizens in
their efforts to protect shorebirds. What can we summarize about these
citizens and their community leadership approach?
First, this case study exemplifies the importance of bioregional
ecological literacy. According to Stables (1998) ecological literacy in
its fullest extent requires not only knowledge of ecological principles,
but also comprehension of cultural meanings of natural environments,
engagement with place to co-create personal meanings of nature, and the
ability to contribute toward positive environmental changes. A
bioregional conception of ecological literacy places the focus on local
connections and actions. Thus ecologically literate citizens at the
bioregional level are people who know about, care for and act on behalf
of the cultural and ecological integrity of their home place (Curthoys
and Cuthbertson, 2002). At MP, the events leading to successful
shorebird protection were set in motion by two well-informed naturalists
sensitive to the vulnerable state of the birds and willing to act on
their behalf.
Second, the community leaders were committed to working over a long
time frame. At MP several decades were required to gain local support,
to acquire legal protection, and to develop interpretive facilities.
Furthermore, small steps toward shorebird protection were taken to
ensure that management actions were appropriate to both the local
ecology and community. In terms of ecology, putting the precautionary
principle into action may be particularly important for small protected
areas given the direct relationship between system size and response
time (Forman and Godron 1986). However, it is important to note that the
ecological integrity of the wetlands, the stable status of the shorebird
populations, and minimal urban, agricultural and industrial regional
pressures (with the exception of the remote threat of a tidal power
plant) afforded the luxury of proceeding slowly.
In terms of community, it required time for community members to
understand and accept the value of modifying local ways to accommodate
the needs of the shorebirds. Community research indicates that intense
conservatism and strenuous resistance to change is typical of many rural
communities (Bernard and Young 1997, Western and Wright 1994).
Furthermore, this resistance intensifies when the instigators of change
are seen by community members as "outsiders." Powered by
determination to protect the shorebirds, yet sensitive to the time it
takes for small communities to accept change, the volunteer stewards of
MP achieved success by providing credible and consistent leadership. In
time, the community came to understand that taking action to protect the
larger web of life--the shorebirds and their habitat--also lead to
community benefits. These benefits included: enhanced understanding of
the ecology of their home place; increased pride in knowing the
contribution of their local beach and salt marshes to internat ional
heritage; continued access and improved maintenance of an area enjoyed
by local residents for its tranquility; and diversified economic
opportunities associated with nature-based tourism. It is interesting to
note that most of these positive outcomes were dependent to some degree
on cooperation with "outside" partners.
Third, although the stewards of MP were resolute, the goal of
shorebird protection was not achieved at the expense of being good
neighbours. Indeed, community citizenship was at the heart of successful
management of MR While management actions were guided by the needs of
the shorebirds, the voluntary stewards of MP--as community members
themselves since the early seventies--also acted on behalf of the human
community in a wide variety of ways as previously noted. Protected area
managers need to be seen as trustworthy and as caring for the community.
Developing this goodwill takes both time and continuity.
Finally, the leadership approach can be described as collaborative.
Here the term collaboration is used as defined by Huxham and Macdonald
(1992: 53): "participants working together to pursue a meta-mission
while also pursuing their individual missions." With a greater
understanding of shorebird migration, the meaning of excellence in
protected area management at MP evolved from a species and site focus to
much a broader regional, national and transoceanic focus. Accordingly,
success required partnerships spanning community to international
levels. While the locus of action for protecting the shorebirds at MP
was initiated and remains at the local level, protective efforts would
have been weakened without the legislative support, enforcement and
research capacities of the federal government, and without assistance
and recognition from other key partners. In addition, involvement of
national and international conservation partners provided enhanced
credibility for value of MP and local efforts to protect it.
A potential block to effective collaboration is mistrust and lack
of respect for other meaning systems. For example, Rhoads et al. (1999)
state that disparities between parochial knowledge and scientific
knowledge can act as a major social barrier to development of effective
partnerships between the community members and "experts." In
this case study; however, community leaders with a sound knowledge of
ecological principles and local natural history, coupled with a
commitment and sensitivity to community traditions, place-based
knowledge, and issues may have played a central role in reducing this
social barrier. Here we see the significance of the combination of
community leadership and ecological literacy. At the community level,
the volunteer stewards provided strong leadership, a propensity for
risk-taking within a conservative rural environment, community spirit,
open communication, continuity through steadfast commitment to shorebird
protection, and mediation between community members and outside agenc
ies. These are all characteristics identified by Selin and Chavez (1994)
as factors that contribute to effective partnerships.
To conclude, this case study on the successful management of
Mary's Point Western Hemispheric Shorebird Reserve reinforces the
valuable role community leadership plays in conservation initiatives. In
particular, ecologically competent citizens with the ability and will to
work cooperatively for the greater good of all community life (including
human and the more-than-human members) will be key determinants in
society's capacity to maintain ecologically viable protected areas,
as well as working toward the ultimate goal of ecologically intact
landscapes and sustainable communities.
[FIGURE 2 OMITTED]
Acknowledgements
I thank the community members of Harvey, New Brunswick who freely
gave of their time to participate in this study. I am indebted to Carl
Urion for valuable guidance in qualitative methodologies, especially
ethnographic interview analysis. I thank Janet Dyment, Beth Dempster,
and an anonymous reviewer for their insightful comments on the
manuscript. Funding for this research was provided by Environment
Canada, Wildlife Habitat Canada and a SSHRC