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Weekly UpdatesAll hospitality operators want employees who can learn their jobs quickly and have personality traits that allow them to maintain their performance over time. Unfortunately, it is not always possible to find individuals who possess all of the desirable attributes, and thus, some degree of compromise is generally required. The prevailing view is to select those with great personalities and then train them for the technical job requirements. However, strict adherence to this perspective is not advisable. The study presented in this article found that both general mental ability and conscientiousness are important for predicting the performance of restaurant employees on the front line. Moreover, it appears that these two individual characteristics are important at different stages of an employee's job tenure. Using data from 241 line-level restaurant employees, the study found that general mental ability was a better predictor of performance for new employees, whereas conscientiousness was a better predictor of performance for experienced employees. These findings have direct implications for staffing decisions, as well as new employee training and development and performance management.
Keywords: restaurant management; job-performance characteristics; hiring determinants
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"Hire for attitude, train for skill" is a common mantra of many hospitality managers. (1) The general assumption is that people can be trained to perform the technical responsibilities for most jobs, but they cannot be instilled with the attitude, disposition, or personality aspects necessary for successful performance. The belief that attitudes predict performance better than cognitive ability is pervasive, even though cognitive ability has been repeatedly shown to be the better predictor of performance for new hires (Rynes, Brown, and Colbert 2002). Indeed, logic suggests that an employee's cognitive ability should be given considerable weight in hiring decisions, as some degree of intellect is required for all jobs. (2) Therefore, the more appropriate mantra is "hire for attitude and skill."
Many hospitality firms have recognized the need to maintain high standards and use a variety of standardized skill and attitude assessments in their hiring procedures (e.g., Hillstone Restaurant Group, Loews Hotels, and Wynn Resorts, to name a few). Unfortunately, the realities of competitive labor markets make it difficult to maintain selective hiring standards. Given the increasing difficulties in attracting and hiring quality employees for certain positions, it is tempting to relax selection criteria to fill open positions. In fact, one manager we know stated, "If a job candidate has a pulse, they're hired!" It is hard to imagine how an operation can maintain its quality and efficiency using such a low standard. Instead, we contend that companies should use procedures that clearly differentiate those who will be successful (i.e., those with the requisite abilities, attitudes, and personalities) from those who will not succeed.
Most jobs require a specific set of skills and attitudes--and that set is often quite large. However, we wanted to examine two characteristics that appear to be the basis for success on the job, namely, general mental ability (GMA) and conscientiousness. Research has found that these two variables are among the best predictors of individual job performance for many positions and work settings. The reason that GMA is important is that it can dictate how quickly one acquires necessary job knowledge and skills The importance of conscientiousness shows up in interactions with coworkers and guests. Gauging these two attributes is important for making effective hiring decisions.
Having proposed the importance of mental ability and conscientiousness, we also suggest that these two factors have different functions in terms of job performance. We say this because an employee's performance on the job is dynamic and changes over time. Some people can hit the ground running when they assume a new job, but most people require some amount of time to gain a complete understanding of and demonstrate proficiency in their new job. Thus, in the early stages of an employee's job tenure, GMA may be the key predictor of performance. Once the employee has learned the essential tasks, duties, and responsibilities, however, that person must remain effective on the job, which suggests that making diligence or conscientiousness more relevant as time goes on. If we can find evidence to support the different contribution of these two characteristics based on job tenure, then priorities can be established for training and related development efforts. In addition, such differences can be instrumental in helping managers understand the performance requirements and training needs of individuals at different stages in their professional development.
Of course, all else being equal, one would prefer to hire the candidate who scores high on both cognitive ability and conscientiousness. Unfortunately, all else is rarely equal. With that in mind, the purpose of this study is to examine the relative importance of GMA and conscientiousness for job performance among new and experienced line-level employees.
We will examine these relationships in two ways. First, we will compare the relationship between performance and GMA and conscientiousness for newcomers and experienced employees. Our approach here challenges the assumption inherent in much of the selection research that the strength of the relationship remains constant over the course of the employment relationship. A few studies have shown that the relationship between a predictor variable and a criterion diminishes over time (Fleishman 1972; Hulin, Henry, and Noon 1990). While there have been a few efforts to account for the role of time in the prediction of job performance (Steele-Johnson, Osburn, and Pieper 2000), the nature of how the relationship between performance and employee characteristics changes over time is still not well understood. Research has repeatedly shown that, across a wide variety of jobs, GMA is a better predictor of job performance than conscientiousness. (3) However, the relative superiority of GMA over conscientiousness may not necessarily hold when examining the validities of these predictors at different stages of employment (Hulin, Henry, and Noon 1990). Moreover, hiring for GMA is more effective for complex jobs. (4)
We begin by discussing the previous research on the predictive validity of GMA and conscientiousness. In particular, we discuss the role of these two characteristics for new employees and for experienced employees in entry-level jobs (i.e., high-consistency, low-complexity positions). We then present the results from a study that compares these two characteristics for new and experienced employees. Finally, we offer insights regarding the use of ability and personality measures for making selection decisions and managing employee performance.
Previous Research
A number of studies have shown that GMA is an excellent predictor of employee job performance for many occupations. Previous research has shown that GMA can account for up to one-third of the variance in performance ratings for managerial jobs and up to 16 percent of the variance in performance for semiskilled positions (see Hunter 1986; Hunter and Hunter 1984; Ree and Earles 1992; Schmitt et al. 1984). These results have led some to argue that GMA should be used as the primary basis on which to make selection decisions.
However, some studies have found that the relationship between GMA and performance deteriorates over time (Keil and Cortina 2001). This finding makes intuitive sense. When individuals are new to their jobs, they are focused on learning the fundamental task requirements and gaining information required to perform their basic job duties. Once they have achieved proficiency, their GMA becomes less important and other individual characteristics, such as personality, determine how well they sustain their performance. GMA remains important, but other factors may be more relevant for job performance as time unfolds.
In addition to one's stage of employment, the nature of one's tasks, duties, and responsibilities may dictate the extent to which GMA influences performance. If a job's tasks are relatively repetitive or consistent, task performance may become routine. In that case, GMA may be less predictive of performance (Ackerman 1986, 1987, 1988). In contrast, inconsistent tasks, which involve constant changes, will place continuous demands on employees. Such a job requires ongoing learning efforts, and GMA may remain a strong and significant predictor of performance. Even if a job involves relatively consistent tasks, GMA will be required at the earlier stages of employment. It should then decrease in importance as individuals acquire the knowledge and skills required to perform the job. As such, the predictive validity of GMA will decline for jobs with consistent performance requirements, and other abilities or characteristics will become better predictors of performance.
As we said above, we think that conscientiousness is one of those "other" characteristics that may predict performance. One of the "big five" dimensions of personality, conscientiousness has been defined as an achievement-striving disposition characterized by a strong sense of purpose and high aspiration levels. (5) People might readily agree that those who are more achievement-oriented, hardworking, and dependable are likely to be more effective employees. Contrary to that belief, conscientiousness has been shown to explain only 7 percent of variance in performance of many jobs--far less than GMA (Hurtz and Donovan 2000). One of the reasons for this finding is that conscientiousness may become relevant at later stages of employment (Helmreich, Sawin, and Carsrud 1986).
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